SfflW^MBRsa 



Smmss 






ftm r i 














ifiwiSW 






'«m. 



.iAiA'fi 



km 




BOTH SIDES 



GRAPE QUESTION 

.TOGETHER WITH 

A CLASSIFICATION 




Species n$ Moieties of tye 
Slr^pe 3)!i)c. 



SECOND EDITION. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., A. M. SPANGLER. 

NEW YORK: 

C. M. SAXTON, BARKER & CO. 

18 6 0. 




BOTH SIDES 

. OP THE 

GRAPE QUESTION. 



COMPRISING 

I. 

"An Essat on the Culture of the Native and Exotic Grape." 

By WILLIAM SAUNDERS, 

Of Qermantown, Pa. 
II. 

u Pbysioorapht in its application to Grape Culture." 
By F. J. COPE, 

Of Greensburg, Pa. 

III. 

"A Contribution to the Classification of the Specieb and 
Varieties of the Grape Vine, with Hints on Culture." 

By J. M. McMINN, 

Of Williamsport, Pa 






£j\*>" 




PHILADELPHIA : 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. A. M. SPANGLER. 

NEW YORK : 

C. M. SAXTON. BARKER & CO. 

18 6 0. 






Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year I860, 
BY A. M. SPANG LER. 

In the Office of the Clerk of the District Court for the Easten? 
Dibtrict of Pennsylvania. 



SIXQ 4 OUR!), PRINTERS. 



NOTE BY THE PUBLISHER. 

"With the first issue of the " Farmer and Gar- 
dener" in September last, we offered a number of 
premiums for Essays on various subjects. Among 
them was a handsome one for the " Best Essay on 
the Grape." For reasons which we cannot ex- 
plain, there was little or no competition. In 
February last, we renewed the offer, with more 
satisfactory results. Seven ably written essays 
were received, which, in accordance with our 
previously published arrangements, were placed in 
the hands of a Committee composed of Dr. J. K. 
Eshleman, of Downingtown, Pa., Thomas M. 
Harvey, of Jennerville, Pa., and Jos. H. Satterth- 
waite, of Oxford Valley, Pa. The names of the 
writers of the essays were, of course, withheld 
from the Committee. After a careful examination, 
the premium was awarded to the one presented by 
William Saunders. 

The freshness and novelty of the views con- 
tained in the essay prepared by F. J. Cope, and 
the research displayed in the one presented by J. 
M. M'Minn, induced the committee to suggest the 
propriety of issuing the three essays in book form. 
With this suggestion we have most cheerfully 
complied, believing that the practical ideas of Mr. 
Saunders, the new, and certainly most beautifully 
presented theory of Mr. Cope, and the able " Con- 
tribution to the Classification of the Species and 
Varieties of the Grape Vine," by Mr. M'Minn, 
will form no small addition to the horticultural 
literature of the day. 

A. M. SPANGLER. 



Farmer and Gardener Office, ) 
Philadelphia, May 15, 1860. \ 



(3) 



CULTURE 

OP THB 

NATIVE AND EXOTIC GRAPE. 

There is, perhaps, no vegetable production that 
has conduced so much to the gratification and 
enjoyment of man as the Grape. Its rapidity of 
growth and longevity — its great fertility, and the 
varied purposes to which its delicious fruit are 
applicable, all combine to render it one of the 
most valuable, as it is one of the most available, 
fruit-producing plants which we possess. The 
facility with which it will grow, even under condi- 
tions not the most favorable, renders it available 
where no other equally useful plant could be culti- 
vated ; thus those who have not more than a 
square yard of ground may plant a grape, and 
train its branches on the walls of their dwelling. 
Of late years, the improvement of varieties, as well 
as the cultivation of native grapes has received 
great attention. Many new varieties of more or 
less merit have been introduced, some have proved 
to be very superior table grapes, and it is probable 
that at no distant period a wine grape may be in- 
troduced of greater value than any of those at 
present largely cultivated for this purpose. 

(5) 



6 PROPAGATION BY EYES. 

The foreign grapes have also received marked 
attention, and as the simplicity of their manage- 
ment becomes more generally understood, we may 
expect to find at least a cold grapery as one of the 
first accompaniments to all suburban residences, 
and farmers will find that no improvement will 
sooner give an appreciable realization than one of 
these structures. The cost of glass houses suit- 
able for their growth, from improved methods of 
construction, can be kept to such economical 
limits, that no one need be deterred from the 
outlay, and no investment in fruit-growing will 
sooner be repaid. 

The general culture of the native grapes differs 
so very materially, in many points, from that of 
the foreign sorts, that they must be treated sepa- 
rately. 

NATIVE GRAPES. 

Propagation. — By Eyes. — An eye, as here 
understood, is a portion of a branch having only 
one bud, and is one of the best methods of in- 
creasing both the native and the foreign grape. 
Plants so produced are furnished with roots near 
the surface of the soil, which is very important to 
their future growth, as they will start stronger and 
grow more luxuriantly when properly planted in 
their permanent locations. The advantages of 
having healthy roots near the surface, to start 
with, is well-known. 



METHOD OF PREPARING CUTTINGS. 7 

It is necessary, however, to ensure success by 
this method, that the cuttings be grown under 
glass, (either a greenhouse or glazed frame,) where 
the requisite moisture may most readily be main- 
tained during the root-forming process. The most 
convenient mode is to plant in shallow portable 
boxes, or large flower pot saucers. The bottoms 
should be perforated with holes to allow free 
escape of water. A layer, two inches thick, of 
broken oyster shells, bricks, or any similar mate- 
rial for drainage is first spread in the bottom, a 
sprinkling of moss is then put over it to prevent 
the soil from being washed down ; four inches of 
light sandy soil will be sufficient. The top half inch 
may be clean washed sand ; it requires to be 
pressed quite firm. The eye-cuttings are inserted 
in rows two inches apart and about one inch 
apart in the row ; if to be potted after rooting, 
they may be set thicker. The mode of preparing 
the eye and the depth it should be planted are 
shown at Fig. 1. This style 
of preparing the "eye we have 
found perfectly satisfactory, 
and it is much more simple- 
than some modes which re- 
commend splitting the shoot, 
sharpening the points, &c. 

Thus prepared, the box 
may be set above the fire 
in the greenhouse ; or, if in a frame, a portion 




8 PROPER TIME FOR POTTING. 

of fresh manure should first be put in, so as to 
produce a slight heat. A depth of two feet will be 
sufficient, and if made quite firm by tramping well 
when filling, it will preserve warmth for several 
weeks ; two or three inches of soil should lie spread 
on the surface, on which the boxes are set. During 
cold nights, a covering of straw will be necessary, 
but in bright days the sashes should be tilted both 
at top and bottom, so that rotting may be pre- 
vented. The soil in which the eyes are inserted 
must be watered with care ; it is safer to keep it 
rather dry than otherwise, as the eye is likely to 
decay when kept constantly wet. 

The first roots run a great distance before 
showing lateral fibres. In this respect the native 
grapes differ from most of the foreign sorts, as they 
throw out more fibrous roots at once, and are in 
consequence easier managed. With very choice 
or new kinds, it is safest to pot them separately in 
small pots when the roots are grown about one 
inch; we frequently pot, even before roots are 
formed, and prefer doing so just after the eyes 
have well calloused over, but they require to be set 
in warmth after potting, to start the roots more 
effectually. 

If not potted, they remain in the boxes until the 
planting out season arrives, which is from middle 
to end of May. Select soil that has been well 
manured and deeply worked. Press the sides from 
the box and carefully disintegrate the roots ; set 



PROPOGATINQ BY CUTTINGS. 9 

out in rows two feet apart, allowing a foot from 
plant to plant. Give a good watering in the rows 
immediately when planted, and should the weather 
prove dry and clear at the time, insert a few 
branches of cedar or pine in front of the rows ; 
this additional care will be more than repaid in 
the greater certainty of immediate healthy growth. 
If carefully cultivated and kept clean during 
summer, they will make good plants the first sea- 
son, superior to a two year's growth from cuttings 
set in the open air, as usually practiced. 

By Cuttings. — This is the usual way of increas- 
ing native grapes. A cutting is a piece of young 
wood from four to six inches in length, and having 
from two to four eyes or buds ; perfectly matured 
wood only should be chosen. It is prepared by 
cutting a clean section close below the lowest bud, 
and leaving a half inch of wood above the upper- 
most bud. This is a necessary precaution as it 
prevents the bud from injury by the shrivelling 
that results from exposure. A light sandy soil is 
generally preferred for planting, but we have been 
most successful in a soil of a rather adhesive 
nature, probably in consequence of its preserving 
moisture better in dry weather. To prepare a 
strong soil it is advisable to throw it up in rough 
ridges before winter, the frost will render it friable 
by spring ; the ridges are then levelled, and when 
dry, turn it over with a digging fork, breaking all 
lumps, and forming a level and finely pulverized 



10 PROPAGATING BY SEED. 

surface. By no means work or tramp such a soil 
when wet. The cuttings are set in holes made 
with a suitable stick, and the soil pressed firmly 
about them with the feet. They will not root well 
unless the soil is firm about them. If the summer 
should prove very dry and parching, it will be 
requisite either to water, or pinch back the shoots ; 
we prefer the last, and when the shoots have four 
or five leaves we pinch all except two ; this lessens 
the evaporating surface and relieves the roots. 
Where a supply of water is convenient, a heavy 
soaking once a week, in the absence of rain, will 
keep them vigorous. 

The young plants are liable to be drawn out by 
the winter frosts, especially on wet soils. A cover- 
ing of manure, chips, tanbark, charcoal dust, or 
sand will tend to preserve them from injury. 

From Seed. — New and improved varieties are 
produced from seed. The seeds should be planted 
as soon as gathered ; if kept dry until spring many 
of them will not vegetate until the following sea- 
son. We have seeds sprouting now (February) 
that were planted in October, 1858. They have 
been in the greenhouse during the whole of that 
time ; plants from the same box having made a 
growth of two feet last year. 

A box or large flower pot should be filled with 
soil and the seeds planted as they ripen. Keep in 
a cool place; a slight freezing will do them no 
harm, but rather be beneficial ; place them in a 



LAYERING. 11 

greenhouse or frame early in spring, or if no such 
conveniences are available, sow in drills, in the 
open ground, the same as peas, and cover with half 
an inch of sand. They should be frequently hoed 
to keep down weeds and let air to the roots ; a 
slight mulching with short manure will tend to 
preserve luxuriance during dry weather. They 
should be protected the first winter by covering, 
afterwards no such care will be essentially neces- 
sary. To get a fruiting cane as soon as possible, 
cut them down to two buds at the winter pruning, 
and train up one shoot only the following year, 
which treatment will, in good soil, furnish a fruit- 
ing shoot the third season from planting the 
seed. 

By Layers. — Layering is a method of propaga- 
ting, whereby roots are encouraged on a branch 
previous to its removal from the parent tree, and 
is usually adopted with plants that do not increase 
readily from cuttings. 

Although the grape cannot be classed among 
difficult rooting plants, yet layering may be use- 
fully practiced where strong rooted plants are 
desired. A branch is laid on the surface of the 
ground, pegged down, and covered with a couple 
of inches of soil, or a shallow trench may be pre- 
pared, and the shoot laid so that the laterals, or 
small branches may show above ground. Any 
time during early summer will allow a plentiful 
growth of roots. In the fall it is taken up and 



12 GRAFTING — SOIL. 

cut in pieces, taking notice that every piece has a 
bud as well as roots. 

By Grafting. — When it is desired to test new 
varieties at the earliest possible period, it is accom- 
plished by grafting the scion upon an old estab- 
lished stock. VinQS of inferior sorts, if healthy, 
may be grafted with superior ; again, some grapes, 
as the Delaware, do not root very readily from 
cuttings ; these can be grafted upon stocks of 
easily increased vines as the Clinton, which makes 
a very suitable stock. A good plant is in this way 
made from each bud. 

The operation of grafting the grape is exceed- 
ingly simple. The stock is cut over quite close to 
the ground, and split down the centre, the scion is 
prepared by cutting one end to a thin wedge, and 
inserted in the split of the stock, the two barks 
are placed in exact contact and tied with a small 
twine of worsted ; the soil is now drawn up so as to 
completely cover the whole except the top bud of 
the scion. The best time to graft the grape is 
after the stock has commenced growth, but it has 
been done as successfully in the month of March. 
When growth commences in spring, the sap flows 
too freely from the wounded stock, destroying the 
graft, but when the leaves are formed before cut- 
ting down, bleeding is not so destructive. 

Soil. — Calcareous and silicious soils are pre- 
ferred for vineyard culture, but any good soil that 
will grow corn will be suitable. Even clayey soils, 



DRAINING AND TRENCHING. 13 

if properly drained and cultivated, will grow 
grapes. Draining, and the ameliorating effects of 
culture will go far to compensate for defective 
soil, and among the increasing variety of native 
grapes there are robust kinds that will succeed, 
perfectly, where others of more delicate constitu- 
tion will fail. Thus the Concord will ripen fruit 
in a soil where the Catawba would uselessly rot. 

Of whatever nature the soil may be, it will be 
much improved by deep working v Trenching with 
the spade is the most effective mode, but in large 
areas, the subsoil plough will do the work cheaper, 
although not so thoroughly. The ground should 
be ploughed twice over in opposite directions, the 
subsoil plough following in each furrow of the 
common plough both ways. This stirring of the 
soil will render it permeable to the roots, and 
admit a supp, y of air and moisture conducive to 
their growth. 

Where the subsoil is tenacious, draining will be 
indispensable. The drains should be sufficiently 
close together to dry the soil quickly, and at least 
two and a half feet in depth, and where no natural 
outlet can readily be secured, (which rarely hap- 
pens,) a well may be dug, and the drains run into 
it ; if a sandy, gravelly, or shaly bottom is met, it 
will absorb the drainage of several acres. 

It has been strenuously advised, in the opera- 
tion of trenching soil, not to bring any of the 
subsoil to the surface ; this is simply subsoiling 



14 TREATMENT OP SUBSOIL. 

and is only half doing a very important operation 
in the fundamental preparation of soil for perma- 
nent crops. It is but of temporary benefit to stir 
a strong subsoil unless something is put into it to 
keep it open, and, (if we except the mere gravels 
or sandy subsoils,) they are rich in the mineral in- 
gredients required by crops, and the best means 
of liberating these mineral bases is by exposure 
to the decomposing influences of the atmosphere. 
The deeper the roots can ramify in good soil, the 
greater the crop, and it is only by enlarging the 
depth that plants will grow luxuriantly in dry 
seasons. The only way to attain this is to trench, 
trench, trench, and gradually bring to the surface 
a portion of the subsoil, that it may be enriched, 
and in turn give place to another layer which will 
undergo the same process. It is true, that in this 
as in other cultural operations, a knowledge of the 
subject is requisite to discriminate in the proper 
trenching of various soils. No person who has 
any knowledge of the relation that exists between 
the soil and the roots of plants would turn eighteen 
inches of a brick clay over upon a stratum of sur- 
face soil only four inches in thickness, and it is 
worse than folly in those who have been the 
victims of their own awkwardness, to condemn a 
system which they do not understand. 

Planting. — Whether the plants should be one 
or two years old at planting, will depend very 
much upon the treatment they have received. If 



PLANTING--PROPER SIZE OF PLANTS. 15 

they have been raised from eyes, and carefully cul- 
tivated as recommended, they will be much supe- 
rior in one year to those raised from cuttings, as 
usually seen, after the second year's growth. 
There is nothing to be gained by setting out older 
plants, unless all the roots are secured. A large 
plant with few roots is but little better than a 
cutting, and will require to be cut down to a few 
buds. We prefer one year old plants, and prune 
them down to two buds, when set out. 

A vigorous start, enabling the plants to form a 
good supply of roots previous to hot or dry 
weather, is very important; a few shovelfuls of 
light, rich soil, placed near the roots at planting, 
will encourage the growth ; mould from the woods, 
mixed with rotten stable manure, will form a good 
rooting medium. 

All things considered, spring will generally be 
found the most suitable season to plant. But if 
the soil is thoroughly prepared, the end of'October 
will be a fitting time, and may be preferred on 
high lands, as the roots will be well settled, and 
closely surrounded by the moist earth, ready to 
push at the first approach of growing weather. 
When planted in the fall, they should be headed 
down at once, and the soil drawn up so as to cover 
the plant, removing it before growth in spring. 

When the plants commence growth, rub off all 
the buds except the strongest, and tie the shoot 
securely as it lengthens. It is by far the best 



16 TREATMENT OF YOUNG PLANTS. 

tret, tment to allow every leaf and lateral shoot to 
grow undisturbed the first summer ; to encourage 
and secure a healthy root foundation, therefore, no 
summer trimming will be advantageous. Hoeing, 
or cultivating occasionally during summer, will be 
followed by increased growth, and a coating of 
manure should be laid over the roots in the fall, 
both as a protection to the plant, and a means of 
enriching the soil. At the winter pruning, the 
plants should be again cut down to three buds ; 
and here it may be as well to remark that we 
prefer to prune grapes early in November, as we 
have found the buds to shoot more vigorous in 
spring when pruned shortly after the leaves have 
fallen, than when the operation has been deferred 
until February. This results from the continued 
accumulation of sap in the plant during winter, 
and as the greatest accumulation of matter is 
found in the extreme buds and at the farthest 
point of branches, it follows that, if pruning is 
deferred until spring, much of the winter accumu- 
lated vigor is lost, and the buds that are retained 
will make a feeble start and comparative late 
growth. On the other hand, when pruning is 
performed in November, the extent of branches 
is reduced, and the buds that are left will swell 
out and start vigorously when the growing period 
arrives ; a matter of much importance with grapes 
like the Catawba, which require a long season for 
perfection. Observation directed to this subject 



PINCHING — TRAINING. It 

will lead to a conviction of its paramount im- 
portance. 

The growth of the second year may be confined 
to one or two shoots, conformable to the system 
intended to be adopted in training, and the strength 
of the plants. Weak plants should be confined to 
one shoot, and as laterals appear, they should be 
checked by pinching out their points, when they 
have made two leaves. The leading or main 
shoot, if growing very vigorously, should be simi- 
larly checked when grown about four feet. This 
practice will cause full development of the lower 
buds, and render them fruitful to the base. 

The neatest training arrangement, where grapes 
for table use only are desired, is the trellis. A 
strong, permanent trellis is made by planting ches- 
nut or cedar posts, and boring holes through them, 
the holes being about fourteen inches apart, into 
which wires are drawn ; a board six or eight inches 
wide is nailed on the top of the posts, keeping 
them in place ; this kind of trellis is simple in 
construction, and easily repaired when necessary. 
For trellis training, two shoots are brought up and 
allowed to grow their full length, pinching out the 
side laterals as before advised. If they show a 
vigorous growth, the points may be pinched off 
when about five feet long, in order to throw 
strength into the lower eyes. No definite time 
can be given when such pinching should be per- 
formed, further than will be dictated by the growth. 
2 



18 TRAINING — WINTER PRUNING. 

At the winter pruning, these shoots are each 
shortened to four or five feet in length, and tied 
down horizontally, in opposite directions, to the 
bottom wire. The buds will all form shoots, when 
growth commences, and are tied up to the wires, 
selecting the best, at distances from fifteen to 
eighteen inches apart, removing all others. These 
will probably all show fruit bunches. Allow each 
alternate shoot to fruit, and remove it from the 
others ; the non-fruiting shoots are allowed to 
extend, the laterals and points being pinched as 
recommended for the previous year. At the 
winter pruning, the shoots that fruited are cut 
down to one or two buds, the other pruned to 
six or eight feet lengths, according to strength of 
shoot and height of trellis. This method of re- 
newal provides a cane of young wood for fruiting, 
alternating with a fruit-bearing shoot. In short, 
the treatment is similar to that of a raspberry 
bush ; the canes being cut down after one years' 
bearing. The only difference in the procedure is, 
that, while the raspberry produces its new shoots 
directly from the crown of roots, the grape must 
be trained at first with arms turned right and left 
close to the ground, to form a base whence all the 
future shoots arise, replacing each other in alter- 
nate succession. 

The number of upright canes to each plant will 
of course depend upon the distance apart that the 



SUMMER TREATMENT — DISEASES. 19 

vines are planted; at ten feet apart, six upright 
shoots can be trained; 

The summer treatment of bearing plants will 
consist in thinning the bunches, not allowing more 
than two bunches at most to remain on a shoot. 
The shoots should be shortened to four joints or 
leaves beyond the bunch, when the berries are as 
large as peas, and all lateral and secondary 
growths constantly pinched back to one joint 
beyond their point of emission, until the end of 
July, when no further removal of foliage should be 
allowed. The extreme points of bunches should 
be cut out early in the season, causing a more 
uniform maturity of the bunch. This much for the 
fruiting cane. The young shoots that are trained 
up between the fruit-bearing branches should 
have all their laterals trimmed to one or two leaves, 
and kept at that during growth ; when the shoot 
reaches the top of the trellis take out the point to 
strengthen the lower buds. Always commence at 
the highest branches first, in summer pruning, as 
they grow strongest, and by checking their growth 
the lower and more feeble branches will be en- 
couraged. 

Diseases. — The grape properly cultivated is not 
much subject to disease. Mildew on the leaves is 
the most injurious, as it retards growth, and the 
wood not being thoroughly matured in consequence, 
it is liable to suffer from early frosts. Syringing 
the leaves with soapsuds, or a mixture of lime and 



20 ROT — KEEPING THE FRUIT. 

sulphur water will prevent its appearance or 
arrest its progress. 

Rot. — This disease is frequently seen in the 
Catawba, and proceeds from wet soil, where the 
roots are cold. Its appearance will be noticed 
after a soaking rain, if followed with warm weather 
and bright sunshine. The remedy is to drain the 
ground, which will warm the soil. A grape soil 
should never be wet, neither should it ever become 
dry. Draining secures both conditions, and when 
the soil is kept in that state, diseases seldom 
occur. 

Keeping the Fruit. — Various methods have been 
resorted to, in order to keep the fruit during at 
least, a portion of the winter months, and with 
varying success. The grapes should be gathered 
rather before being fully ripe than later ; choosing 
a dry day, collect them carefully and spread them 
thinly on the floor of a dry, cool room. Before 
storing, the branches must be carefully inspected 
and all mouldy, rotten and imperfect berries re- 
moved. They may then be packed in clean dry 
boxes, in layers of wadding alternating with layers 
of grapes. They require to be kept as cool as pos- 
sible without freezing, and damp must be excluded. 
The wadding is sometimes substituted by bran or 
oats, and baked saw dust has been used advanta- 
geously. Some kinds, the Clinton for instance, 
can be kept in drawers for many weeks in a cool 
dry room, without any intervening material. 



LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 21 

Descriptive List of Native Grapes. — Catawba 
and Isabella are old well-known kinds, and have 
long stood as best for general planting, and when 
thoroughly ripened, will compare favorably with the 
best of newest varieties. The Catawba requires a 
warm fall to ripen properly in open exposures in 
the neighborhood of Philadelphia. Either of these 
grapes, with the roots in favorable soil, and the 
vines trained south side of a wall or close fence, 
will acquire a perfection in ripening equal to any 
hardy grape yet grown. 

Diana. — This is understood to be a seedling 
from the Catawba, and is like its parent in color 
of fruit, although neither bunch nor berry are so 
large. It ripens two weeks earlier, and is of a rich, 
spicy flavor. A good grower, and valuable grape. 

Delaioare. — No grape has been ushered in with 
so many eulogiums as this. Most persons who 
have tested it are willing to admit that it, is sweet, 
and pleasant to eat. It grows with tolerable vigor, 
and is not perhaps more subject to mildew than 
some others, but it is small and insignificant both 
in bunch and berry, and the seeds are large. It 
is very prolific, and will ripen a great number of 
bunches, although not any greater weight of fruit 
than the Isabella. We may risk something in re- 
marking that we consider it has been overrated. 

Concord — We unhesitatingly place this grape 
in the first of the list for the million. It will grow 
and bear abundantly where the Catawba and Isa- 



22 LIST OF NATIVE GRAPES. 

bella will be destroyed by rot or mildew. It has a 
rank and robust growth, ripens its shoots perfectly, 
even under unfavorable conditions, consequently 
will stand hard freezing without injury. It is re- 
markably productive and ripens early. Bunch 
quite as large as Isabella, fruit luscious and some- 
what buttery. 

Hartford Prolific. — This is a good grape. Its 
greatest merit being its earliness. It is about 
equal to Isabella in flavor, and is a good substitute 
where the Isabella will not ripen. 

Clara. — Although this is a seedling from a 
foreign grape, it is classified by the Pennsylvania 
Horticultural Society, among hardy varieties. It 
has ripened well in the open air in sheltered posi- 
tions, but as many of the foreign grapes will do so, 
we would advise its general adoption with caution. 
If it proves perfectly reliable, it will be an acquisi- 
tion, as it is a white grape of excellent quality. 

Rebecca. — A very fine white grape, but of weak 
and slender growth, much liable to mildew, at least 
when young. We are unwilling to discard it, 
hoping that it will improve as the plants attain 
age and vigor. Bunch and berry of only medium 
size, when ripe very sweet and melting. 

Clinton. — A remarkably vigorous growing plant, 
fruit rather small and of secondary quality for table 
use, but has very desirable keeping qualities, and 
expected, by those who have experience, to be a 
good wine grape. 



EXOTIC GRAPES. 23 

Maxatawny. — A white grape of recent introduc- 
tion, which we perhaps cannot better describe than 
as a white Isabella. Both bunch and berry, as 
well as flavor, are remarkably similar to that 
well-known variety. 

Wilmington. — A white grape, which we learn 
from what we consider reliable authority, to be of 
best quality in every respect. 

Bullitt or Taylor Grape. — We are inclined to 
believe, from what we have learned that this is also 
likely to be a reliable fruit, but cannot recommend it 
from personal knowledge. It is of a white color. 

This is not a tenth of the list of native grapes 
that are now catalogued, but we consider that it 
embraces those of most merit so far as they have 
been sufficiently tested. 



EXOTIC GRAPES. 

The exotic grape is increased and propagated 
similar to the native, and generally roots much 
more easily. Having entered minutely into the 
details of propagating in the former paper, it will 
not be necessary to recapitulate what has already 
been remarked on that point. 

They are almost invariably raised from single 
eyes, as they form the best plants, and where a few 



24 COLD GRAPERIES. 

only are desired, or where there is ample room, 
the eyes may be placed singly in small pots at once, 
saving the risk of removal from the cutting boxes 
and economising labor. They will grow if merely 
set in a warm greenhouse or frame, and will root 
speedier if set on a slight bottom heat. 

All attempts to cultivate exotic grapes in the 
open air in this climate may be said to have proved 
complete failures. Occasionally, in sheltered, and 
otherwise peculiarly favored situations, partial suc- 
cess has been obtained. We have seen good fruit of 
Hamburgs and others from walls in the open air ; 
but no permancy can be relied upon them for gene- 
ral culture, from their tendency to be attacked by 
mildew both on the leaves and fruit, which pre- 
vents the young wood from maturing. The conse- 
quence is, that it will be destroyed during winter, 
and even although protected from frost, a diseased, 
weak growth ensues, which sooner or later ends in 
complete dissolution. 

It is therefore a necessity to provide glass struc- 
tures to grow them to perfection. The great de- 
sideratum is to secure the means of keeping a moist 
atmosphere, and to guard against sudden and ex- 
treme changes. A mere close shed with a glass 
roof will secure these conditions, but a slight ad- 
ditional outlay in the way of greater permanency or 
ornament, will be more than repaid in the increased 
interest that will be taken in a sightly structure. 



PLAN FOR BUILDING GRAPERY. 25 



COLD GRAPERIES. 

Span, or double-roofed houses are most economi- 
cal for a cold grapery, as they cost less in com- 
parison to their capacity. A degree of architectural 
character may be given which will render a grapery 
admissible in the most finished pleasure grounds. 
Some persons prefer curved roofs. They cost a 
little more than straight roofs, and many beautiful 
graperies have been put up in that style, but do 
not possess any important advantages over straight 
roofs. 

Of late years much has been done to reduce the 
cost of glass structures. When finished with sli- 
ding sashes they are expensive ; with the roof fixed, 
and hinged ventilators, they can be put up at half 
the cost of the framed sash roof, they look much 
neater and are better adapted to the purposes of 
fruit-growing, because they are lighter, and do not 
throw so much shade in the interior ; for, although 
shade is at times necessary, there are seasons when 
all the light than can be had is desirable, and in a 
house with numerous heavy rafters, a permanent 
shade is produced. 

Building the House. — A good cold grapery may 
be built as follows. Suppose it to be twenty-four 
feet wide, double-roofed and of any length from 
twenty to two hundred feet. Having first resolved 
upon the ground level of the border (which will be 



26 PLAN FOR BUILDING GRAPERY. 

further alluded to), mark out the site and set 
locust or cedar posts seven feet apart all round ; 
the house should be placed with end to south if 
convenient, although it will answer equally well if 
the end is placed to face any point from southeast 
to southwest. The north end may be boarded un- 
less the house is in a conspicuous position. The 
posts are levelled at four feet from the ground sur- 
face, and a three inch by six inch sill laid on and 
firmly spiked into them. Rafters three inch by five 
inch are set up, one over each post ; these are tied 
together with cross ties in the ordinary mode of 
roofing. The height at ridge,. for a house of this 
width and front elevation will be about twelve feet 
from the level of sill. Cross pieces or bars made 
of strips of inch board three inches wide, are let in 
between the rafters edgeways, so that their upper 
surface is level with surface of rafter ; these cross 
bars run the whole length of the house in parallel 
rows about four inches apart. We now have a self- 
supporting frame work and all that is necessary is 
to cover it with glass. This is a simple operation ; 
sash bars one inch wide and one and a-half inch in 
depth rebated for glazing, are laid on the roof, and 
secured at such distance apart as may be suited 
to the size of glass to be used. 10 X 12 glass is a 
convenient size, so that the sash bars will require 
to be twelve and a-half inches apart from centre to 
centre ; the rebate in the sash bar is half an inch 
deep and quarter of an inch on each side, leaving 




(27) 



28 SOIL AND BORDER. 

a stile half inch wide. Ventilators are provided at 
top, hinged on the ridge. These should not be less 
than two feet wide, and three feet in length, and 
alternate on each side of roof so as to present a 
ventilating capacity of three feet, the whole length 
of the house. These ventilators are worked by up- 
right rods from the interior. The following illus- 
trations may render this description more intelligi- 
ble. 

Fig. 2, shows a portion of the roof, as also the 
section of the house ; a, a, a, are the posts upon 
which the house rests, and b, b, b, are rafters ; c, c, 
are the cross pieces inserted between the rafters to 
support the sash bars d, d, d, d, d, a full sized sec- 
tion of which is shown at Fig. 3. 

e, is an inch board which the sash bars butt 
against, and the glass laps over at the bottom. 
This board projects to form an eave ;/, is the posi- 
tion of ventilators and g is the cross tie. The glass 
is bedded in putty, and none otherwise used; out- 
side putty is a nuisance on a glass roof. All the 
woodwork inside, except the sash bars, we prefer 
to levae unplaned. "We have found that an annual 
coat of wash made of sulphur and lime, in propor- 
tions of one pound of the former to one peck of 
the latter, on all inside wood-work, is an entire 
preventive of insects and mildew. We therefore 
prefer rough surfaces for this purpose. 

To form a trellis under the roof, strong wire 
staples, fourteen inches long, are inserted in par- 



SOIL AND BORDER. 29 

allel rows, fourteen or sixteen inches apart, in the 
rafters ; No. 16 wire is then run through eyes, 
drawn tightly and fastened at both ends. 

Soil and Border. — It is customary in making a 
border of soil for exotic grape growing, to excavate 
the subsoil and remove it to a depth of at least 
two feet, so as to secure that depth of good soil. 
Instead of removing the subsoil, we prefer to 
place the additional soil required on the surface, 
thus forming a slightly raised terrace, which adds 
to the beauty of the house, secures perfect drain- 
age, and avoids the expense of removal of subsoil. 
To prepare a border in the best manner, first sur- 
round it on all sides by a drain, then, if the subsoil 
is clayey or wet, form cross drains, ten feet apart, 
communicating at each end with the surrounding 
drain first mentioned. The tops of these drains 
need only be a few inches below the level of sub- 
soil. Now commence at one end of the intended 
border, and take out a trench three feet' in width, 
removing it to the opposite end ; remove the good 
surface soil only ; a few inches of the subsoil may 
go with it unless it is a strong clay. When this 
trench is cleanly and evenly taken out, lay in the 
bottom, six inches in thickness of oyster shells, for 
drainage, spread regularly over the whole ; over 
these place a thin layer of strawy matter to pre- 
vent the soil falling amongst the drainage below. 
Broken bricks, stone, or any similar material, may 
take the place of shells, the object being to secure 



30 SOIL AND BORDER. 

good drainage below the border, and an inverted 
sod is the best covering for the drainage where a 
sufficient quantity can be procured. This being 
arranged, mark off another space of three feet 
width, and turn the soil of this trench over on the 
prepared bottom; this opening is prepared with 
drainage as before, and another trench marked off, 
and so proceed until the whole has been similarly 
treated. The additional soil required to bring the 
border up to a depth of two and a half feet of 
border, may be made up of good top soil, such as 
is often found in the line of an old fence, or head- 
land, enriched with one-fourth part of a good 
rotted stable manure and one-fourth crushed 
bones and charcoal rubbish. These ingredients 
are to be well mixed previous to removal on the 
border. 

Before spreading this preparation, the original 
soil on the border should receive a coating of 
manure which is to be dug in, then add the pre- 
pared soil, bringing the border, when finished, 
about two feet higher than the original surface. 
This forms the floor of the house, and must be cal- 
culated upon, in setting the posts for the building. 

With regard to the extent of border, we prefer 
to make it all inside the house and six feet beyond, 
on each side at first, adding to it in after years, if 
such addition may be considered necessary. We 
do not believe that very extensive borders are 
requisite. We have seen some lately that are made 



PLANTING. 31 

inside the house only, and we consider it a most 
desirable arrangement, as the soil is completely 
under control, and can be watered or kept dry, as 
occasion demands. When the roots have access 
to outside borders there is much chance of danger 
to the fruit when ripening. A heavy rain after 
the fruit is colored will frequently retard its 
ripening, make the fruit watery and less sweet, 
and induce decay; the wood-maturing process is 
also arrested, and a late growth encouraged, which 
never thoroughly ripens, to the great injury of the 
succeeding crop. 

Outside borders should, therefore, be covered in 
September by a good layer of manure; shutters or 
glazed sashes would be a better protection, but 
some means of throwing off heavy rains should be 
adopted. 

Planting. — The vines may be planted any time 
from October to June. Usually, the border is 
prepared in the fall and winter months \ then the 
best time would be about the middle of March. 
The plants will not have commenced growth at 
that time, and will be in good condition for setting 
out. Good growths may be had from plants set 
out as late as June, but they will then have made 
growth and require more careful handling. To 
ensure an early, vigorous start, mix a portion of 
leaf mould and sand in the soil when planting. 
The plants are generally raised in pots, and before 
placing them in the border, carefully shake out all 



32 TRANSPLANTING FROM POTS. 

the soil from their roots, without damaging the 
fibres ; spread them out and cover with about three 
inches of soil. If the plants have made some 
growth before removal, the roots must not be dis- 
turbed to any great extent, but the soil should be 
well pressed around all sides of the ball of roots 
so that when water is applied it will not escape 
through the fresh soil without moistening the 
roots, which is a likely occurrence if the plants 
have been undisturbed in the pots for a couple of 
years. 

As to the age of the plants, whether those of 
one or two year's growth are best, will depend 
upon the treatment they have been subjected to. 
Healthy plants of one year's growth are in general 
to be preferred. There can be no objection to 
older plants if they have been allowed plenty of 
rooting space in large pots, but old plants with 
cramped, stinted and decaying roots, are to be 
avoided. In all cases, the plants are to be cut 
down to within three or four inches of the ground. 
Occasionally, a few fruiting plants, that have been 
prepared for that purpose in large pots, are planted 
so as to secure a few bunches of fruit the first 
season. These should not be considered as per- 
manent, unless they are pruned down after fruiting, 
so as to form a new shoot from the ground. If the 
plants have commenced to grow before the ground 
is ready for their reception, they should not be 
planted until the end of April in the cold grapery, 



MANAGEMENT OF GRAPERY. 33 

otherwise the weather might be too cold for their 
continued growth, and a check at planting would 
seriously affect their future vigor. 

Management of the House. — For the first few 
weeks after the plants have pushed into growth^ 
the house should be kept rather close. At no 
time during the period of active growth should 
the lower ventilators be opened. Even the doors 
should be kept carefully closed, to avoid currents 
of air, which is one of the most certain causes of 
mildew, and robs the air of its contained moisture, 
which it is of the utmost importance to preserve. 
The plants, and interior of the house should be 
sprinkled with water through a syringe every bright 
morning. The thermometer may indicate a tem- 
perature of 90° in the middle of the day, provided 
the air is kept moist, and it will be sufficiently high 
at 45° or 50° in the morning. A lowering of tem- 
perature during darkness is necessary to the well- 
being of all plants. During the month of May the 
night temperature will average higher than these 
figures ; and when all danger from night frosts has 
passed, the ventilators may be left open a few 
inches, shutting close in very cold and stormy 
weather, and always endeavoring to get an advance 
of 20° to 30° of temperature during the day. 

After the growths are sufficiently forward, select 
the best shoot and tie it carefully to the trellis, and 
rub all others off. It is perhaps better to merely 
pinch the points out of the second best, in order that 



34 PINCHING SHOOTS. 

a substitute may be bad, should any accident befall 
the main shoot, which is not probable if carefully 
secured. Always tie loosely, so that the branches 
may have space to swell out. When lateral, or side 
shoots make their appearance, pinch out the ex- 
treme points of them immediately beyond the first 
leaf, as soon as it is practicable to do so, the 
earlier the better. Do not allow these laterals to 
produce five or six leaves and then pinch off to 
one, this is a waste of growth. The point is to 
be taken out of the leading shoot in a similar man- 
ner when it has made a growth of eight feet. All 
removal of leaves while plants are in active growth 
has a tendency to reduce vigor ; and to get strength 
in the roots, the growth during the first year is fre- 
quently allowed to proceed undisturbed. It is a 
safe practice, to attend to the points, and re- 
move them as soon as a leaf is visible, or stop the 
points of shoots. By merely removing a portion 
not larger than a pin head, growth is not checked, 
it is only directed into other courses, and the 
leaves that are left will grow larger, and benefit 
the plant more than a number of small laterals 
leaves would have done ; at the same time, the eye 
at the base of the lateral is much strengthened, 
and as this eye produces the future fruit-bearing 
shoot, it is important that it receive all encourage- 
ment to full developments. 

The routine management during the first sum- 
mer will, therefore, mainly consist in the observ- 



FALL PRUNING. 35 

ance of these details. Keep a moist atmosphere 
by frequently sprinkling the house, and syringe 
every fine morning. Admit no bottom ventila- 
tion, and when the border becomes dry inside the 
house, which it may, about the middle of summer, 
give it a thorough soaking with rain-water, and 
previous to doing so, sprinkle a dressing of guano 
over the surface, which will assist growth. 

By the middle of September, watering may be 
discontinued. It is necessary that the border should 
become dry, as well as a dryer atmosphere, in order 
that the wood-ripening process may be facilitated, 
for upon the thorough maturity of the wood all 
future success depends. 

Prune in November. All the canes that aver- 
age three-fourths of an inch in diameter are to be 
pruned back to lengths of eight feet ; if stronger, 
they may be left ten feet, and all that are much 
weaker should be again cut close down to one or 
two buds, to ensure a new and more vigorous cane. 
About the middle of December the vines are bent 
to a horizontal position, and protected by straw or 
mats. A covering of manure is now spread over 
the border, both inside and out, to keep frost from 
the roots. No further care is required during 
winter ; the house must be kept dry and airy, shut- 
ting up closely only in storms or frost. 

Second Year. — One of the difficulties attend- 
ing a cold grapery is, the liability to premature 
excitements in spring, causing the buds to swell 



36 COLD GRAPERY — SECOND YEAR. 

and leaves to expand before all danger from frost 
is passed. On this account many persons prefer 
to have a furnace attached, so that a slight arti- 
ficial heat may be given in cases of emergency. 

Occasionally also in the fall, a slight fire is use- 
ful, especially if it is desired to keep the grapes 
hanging late ; they may be kept up to Christmas, 
with a fire in frosty or damp weather. A furnace 
and flue is, therefore, a useful attachment. But 
where there are no means of applying heat, (and 
there are hundreds of graperies without it,) it is 
important to prevent early growth. The atmos- 
phere must be kept cool, and we have found 
shading the glass a good method of retarding. The 
vines should also retain their horizontal position 
until the buds start at the lowest portion of the 
stem. They are then tied up to the wires, allow- 
ing the tops to remain pendant in order to encour- 
age more vigorous growth in the lower buds. 

Syringe the vines regularly every fine morning, 
and when growth has fairly commenced, give the 
inside soil a good watering. It should be a con- 
stant aim to preserve a moist air ; in very warm 
days frequent sprinklings will be advantageous. 
Rigidly exclude currents of dry air from pass- 
ing through the house ; rather shade the glass 
slightly than be under the necessity of throwing 
all the ventilation open, currents of cold air being 
one of the most notable precursors of mildew. 

The flower buds will expand about the middle 



TEMPERATURE — VENTILATION. 37 

of May; syringing must then be discontinued for a 
time, for, although a light misty wetting will do no 
harm even when the vines are in flower, yet it 
must be carefully done ; dashing water forcibly on 
the flowers will do more harm than good. 

The temperature may now range from 95° to 
100° in bright sunlight, to 60° or 55° at night. It 
is not proposed to aim at keeping it at these figures, 
but this range will be safe. It is a good rule to 
have the house rather dry at night ; that is, no 
heavy waterings or sprinkling should be given 
towards evening, until the middle of June, when 
danger from cold nights is not so likely to occur. 
It is a sign that the night temperature has been 
of the most agreeable character when the leaves 
are ornamented with drops of water round their 
edges. When the berries are formed, syringing 
should again be resumed, and about the middle of 
June allow an inch or two of the ventilation to 
remain open during the night, except ' in extra 
severe weather. This night ventilation we have 
found to have a decided salutary effect on the 
plants, enabling them to withstand sudden changes 
without injury, and to that extent hardening them 
against being mildewed, but only the top ventil- 
ators should be opened ; we admit no bottom ven- 
tilation until the fruit is colored. 

As soon as the bunches are well formed, they 
will require thinning, one bunch is sufficient to a 
shoot, and the whole crop must be reduced with 
4 



38 THINNING THE BUNCHES. 

reference to the size of the plant. A cane three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter may be allowed six 
or eight bunches of about a pound each. The 
weight of fruit, rather than the number of bunches 
must be the guide. When the berries attain the 
size of peas they will require thinning. The shoul- 
der*, or side divisions of the bunches are first 
brought up to a horizontal position and tied to the 
trellis; this spreads the bunch, and allows more 
berries to be retained without crowding. The most 
expeditious mode of tying up the shoulders is to 
procure a quantity of very fine wire, cut it into de- 
sirable length, form a hook at one end to catch the 
bunch, and fix in position by bending the opposite 
end round the trellis. Proceed to thin the berries 
with a pair of sharp pointed scissors, and it will be 
found much easier to thin before the bunches be- 
come hard and compact. The number of berries 
to be cut out will depend upon the kind of fruit, as 
some set more numerously than others ; small fruited 
varieties do not require so severe thinning as the 
larger berried sorts. Those who have not the re- 
quisite experience will find it necessary to go over 
them several times during the summer, when they 
will acquire a knowledge of the operation, that will 
enable them to thin sufficiently at once in future. 

It is important not to handle the fruit in thin- 
ning, hold the bunch steadily by the footstalk in 
one hand, and carefully insert the scissors so as 
not to injure the berries that are to be left. 



CARE IN SUMMER PRUNING. 39 

Crops are frequently injured by injudicious 
summer pruning. Without a sufficiency of healthy 
active foliage, the fruit will not ripen to perfection. 
The reason for pinching out the point from a fruit- 
bearing shoot one or two leaves beyond the bunch, 
is to concentrate the growth so as to increase the 
size of the fruit and develope more fully the buds 
that are to produce future crops. When properly 
performed, these advantages may be secured with- 
out injury to the present crops. This is done by 
taking the extreme joint out of the shoot as soon 
as it can be observed, and before the leaves attain 
any size beyond the fruit. It is hurtful to the 
plant and diminishes its vigor, to allow the shoots 
to extend, and the laterals to grow for several 
weeks, and then cut off a foot or more from their 
lengths at one operation. 

The general management of the house during 
summer has already been treated, and need not 
again be repeated in detail. The essential points 
are, to preserve a moist atmosphere during the 
early stage of growth, avoid currents of dry air, 
and if any signs of mildew make their appearance 
sprinkle flour of sulphur on the floor, especially 
in positions where the sun will warm it, as it is 
from the fumes generated when heated, that its 
active influence is obtained. 

The fruit will be superior in flavor, if the soil is 
kept rather dry from the time it begins to color. 
The berries will perhaps not grow so large, but 



40 FORCING. 

both fruit and wood wil.l mature earlier and more 
thoroughly, by withholding water from the soil at 
this period. 

When the vines are pruned in November, the 
soil should be covered with manure, both as a pro- 
tection to the roots during winter and to enrich 
the border ; cover with straw and lay them down 
on the surface, to protect them from the frosts and 
suns of winter. 

Thus far is a brief detail of general routine 
management. The crop will increase annually for 
two or three years. The extent of training surface 
in the house limits the crop. The various modes 
of pruning will be more fully detailed in the 
sequel. 

Forcing Grapes. — These remarks have refer- 
ence more particularly to the cold grapery, or a 
house where sun heat only is admitted. To pro- 
cure ripe fruit at an earlier period, resort must be 
had to artificial heat, usually termed forcing. 

The first consideration in arranging a forcing 
house is a border for the roots. It is very evident 
that only partial success will follow, if the roots 
are placed in a lower temperature, relatively, than 
that in which the branches are placed. It is not 
necessary to discuss this matter to a great extent, 
we will therefore, at once observe, that we have 
come to the conclusion, (after a lengthened expe- 
rience,) that the soil should all be within the glass 
roof, no border outside. Extensive borders are 



HEATING. 41 

not an absolute necessity, either for cold graperies, 
or those that are forced. Let the border, therefore, 
be made wholly inside the house, well drained and 
arranged as before recommended. With regard 
to the modes of heating, there is no question but a 
hot water apparatus is best. It does not follow, 
however, that a hot air flue and common furnace 
will not answer a good purpose, and for a small 
single roofed house, not over thirty-five feet in 
length, and twelve in breadth, a flue is least 
expensive, costing about one-sixth of hot water 
fixtures to heat such a sized house. When the 
the house is sixty feet and upwards in length, hot 
water will then be the most economical in the end, 
as two furnaces would be required in it to force 
grapes, even to ripen by the end of June. Water 
being a good conductor, carries heat a long dis- 
tance. Air is a bad conductor, and while the flue 
is heated to a high degree near the furnace, it will 
be comparatively cool forty feet from it. In the 
one case there is an extensive surface radiating 
heat at a low temperature ; in the other, the great- 
est heat is confined to a limited surface, and is 
therefore radiated at a much higher temperature. 

Very slight forcing will be required the first 
year. Plant about the 1st of March and keep the 
temperature about 55° to 60° during night, allow- 
ing an increase of 20° to 25° during the day. The 
treatment of the plants during growth will be 

similar to what has already been detailed. To 
4* 



42 CONDITION OF BORDER. 

hasten the ripening of the wood, the soil should 
gradually be brought to a state of comparative 
dryness by the end of August, and this is one of 
the great advantages of having the border under 
control. It may appear that having the borders 
thus isolated from rains, much labor would be re- 
quired in watering; such is not the case. A 
thorough watering once in six weeks, even during 
the most active period of vegetation will be suffi- 
cient. The soil should be occasionally hoed up 
loosely for. the first two or three months, and by 
the end of June a thin loose mulch of manure or 
leaf mold will help to retain moisture, arresting 
evaporation. 

The grape is the easiest of all fruits to force, 
although, as a matter of course, close attention is 
required in keeping a suitable temperature in 
severe seasons. To have ripe fruit by the middle 
of May, forcing should be commenced by the mid- 
dle of December. At least five months should be 
allowed from the first application of heat until the 
ripening of the fruit. The principal points of at- 
tention will consist in supplying a proper degree 
of moisture in the atmosphere. The constant ten- 
dency of artificial heat is to abstract moisture, and 
a regular condensation is also produced by the 
cold glass surface, and the greater the difference 
between the external and internal temperatures, 
the more rapidly is atmospheric moisture consumed. 

A most important but much neglected practice, 



OUTSIDE COVERS. 43 

auxiliary to retaining heat in glass structures 
during the winter months, is that of outside covers. 
Considering the palpable economy of such covers, 
it does seem strange that they are not more gen- 
erally used. We have ascertained from repeated 
experiments, that a simple, close-fitting cover of 
muslin, elevated a few inches above the roof so as 
to enclose a stratum of air, will effect a saving of 
15° of heat. During high winds the saving is 
somewhat reduced, but a heavier and closer cov- 
ering would show a proportionate increase of 
temperature. It is perhaps unnecessary to enter 
into a minute description of this arrangement, as 
any mechanic could readily apply it, but it is most 
essential that the covering should not touch the 
glass, as it would then afford very little protection. 

Air must be admitted with caution when the 
external temperature is below freezing; rather 
allow the thermometer to indicate 95 or 100° of 
heat than admit a cutting frosty wind ; with in- 
creased heat there must be increased moisture. 
Great regularity in syringing the leaves will pre- 
vent the increase of insects, and an occasional 
slight fumigation with tobacco will further tend to 
cleanliness in this respect. 

Growing Grapes in Pots. — At present the pot 
culture of grapes is much agitated, and in some 
quarters much advocated. As to its general util- 
ity, we do not expect much, but for a very early 
crop the system is good. We will briefly detail 



44 POT CULTURE. 

our mode of pot culture for the benefit of those 
who may be inclined to adopt it. We have cut 
ripe grapes from plants in fourteen months from 
the planting of the eye, but prefer to grow the 
plants two years before fruiting. The first year 
the plants are grown in seven inch pots, but must 
be grown under glass ; a close fitting frame, deep 
enough to contain the plants, will be suitable 
during the first season, when watering and stak- 
ing is all the attention required. When the foliage 
falls, they are pruned down to two or three buds, 
and kept in a shed or cellar, secured from frosts. 

About the first of March they may be brought 
into a greenhouse, or placed in a warm frame to 
excite them into growth. When they have made 
an inch or so of young wood, re-pot into twelve- 
inch pots, shake some of the soil carefully from 
the roots, and spread them out on the soil when 
re-potting. A soil formed of rotted sods, mixed 
with one-fourth of leaf mold, or rotted dung, will 
be suitable, broken bones or small pieces of char- 
coal with the soil will tend to preserve its porosity. 
The pots should have two inches of drainage, cov- 
ered with a sprinkling of moss to render it more 
effective. The treatment during summer should 
be similar to that recommended for the cold 
grapery so far as pertains to the atmosphere. 
When growing freely, they will require close atten- 
tion to watering ; neglect in this respect will injuri- 
ously affect the growth. Whether they will be 



POT CULTURE. 45 

fruitful or not depends altogether upon their man- 
agement this season. One stem only should be 
retained, and when this has grown about a foot or 
so, stop them at the sixth leaf, leaving all the 
laterals, except the topmost, which should be 
removed as soon as it can be distinguished ; this 
will cause the topmost bud to grow, and the check 
occasioned by its removal will tend to develope 
more fully the lower buds, and cause them to be 
fruitful. After the topmost bud has again pushed 
and formed two or three leaves, all the laterals 
are shortened to two leaves. Stop the leading 
shoot a second time about nine buds or eyes from 
the point where it was previously stopped. After- 
wards, keep all the laterals shortened, but do not 
remove them entirely until growth is completed. 
We have seen canes thus prepared that have 
shown twenty-five and thirty bunches of fruit in 
lengths of seven feet, all of which are removed 
except six or eight. This is all that the plant can 
properly ripen. As the canes ripen, gradually 
reduce the waterings, and about the middle of 
September have the whole matured. Then prune 
out all laterals and cut the cane down to the point 
where the second summer topping was performed. 
Three or four weeks previous to forcing the plants, 
lay the pots on their sides in some out of the way 
place, lay the canes flat on the ground and cover 
them over with three inches of soil, keeping the 



46 SMALL INSIDE BORDERS. 

soil moist, but not saturated, with water ; this pecu- 
liar treatment we have not seen recommended, but 
having practiced it, we have found that the wood 
will imbibe moisture, the buds swell, and force into 
leaf after being placed in heat, two or three weeks 
sooner than when the canes are not thus rested ; 
it gives them some of the advantages that they re- 
ceive from a winter's rest. 

The plants being thus prepared, their future 
management will be similar to that detailed for the 
forcing house. After the fruit is set, they may re- 
ceive a weekly watering of liquid manure, which 
will increase the size of the berries, but all manu- 
rial applications should be stopped, when the fruit 
changes color. In practising the method here de- 
tailed we have had the greatest success with grapes 
in pots. 

Small inside borders for early forcing. — The 
principal object attained ir> pot culture of fruit 
trees, is the entire control over the roots, and it is 
a very great advantage in the early forcing of 
plants to have the roots surrounded by the same 
atmospherical temperature in which the branches 
are placed ; no plant can be kept in a healthy con- 
dition for any length of time when the branches 
are stimulated in a high temperature and the roots 
kept in a cold medium. 

The principal objections to pot culture are the 
amount of labor involved in watering, potting, &c, 
and the inevitable failure that will result from even 



INSIDE BORDERS. 4Y 

slight neglect of these operations ; and in a climate 
so varied and intense as ours, the labor and con- 
stant watchfulness required, presents a serious 
barrier to the extension of this mode of culture. 

So far as complete isolation from external influ- 
ences is of importance, all the conditions can be 
secured by forming a small border inside the house, 
and planting out the vines with a view to pernia- 
nance. 

This arrangement may be likened to the planting 
of a number of vines in one large pot, instead of 
one plant in a smaller space ; for a border in this 
condition is as much under the control of the cul- 
tivator as a pot, with the advantage of being less 
influenced by extremes. We have had such 
borders divided into spaces, so that the roots of 
each plant was confined, but we found no advan- 
tage from this mode. Strong growing vines can 
be kept under control by judicious summer prun- 
ing, which abridges their root growth, without 
injuriously affecting the growth of weaker varieties. 

The following figure will show this arrangement. 
The soil in the space a, has no communication 
with the walls of the house, thus securing com- 
plete isolation from the external atmosphere. The 
soil is placed upon a stratum of drainage, and in 
order to more effectually surround the roots with 
the atmosphere of the house, large sized draining 
tiles, or open work brick flues should be placed 
across the bottom of the border, through the 



48 



INSIDE BORDERS. 




Forcing House. 

drainage ; these air-drains should be frequent and 
left open at the ends, so that the air may permeate 
the soil. This will keep the soil at a proper tem- 
perature, provided care be exercised in watering. 
These drains are not an absolute necessity, as soil 
is warm or cold just in proportion to its contained 
moisture ; so that a border continually soaked with 
water, although drained in this manner, will be 
colder than a more carefully watered border with- 
out such additions. The heating medium will be 
placed at c in the section. The plants b are set 
closely together ; they are placed two feet apart, 



DISEASES. 49 

in rows three feet distant. This close planting 
secures a heavy crop at once, and allows the cut- 
ting down of a cane occasionally, or each alternate 
cane yearly, as may be desired. 

In an economical point of view, the quantity of 
fruit that may be grown by this arrangement is 
much greater than can be secured by exclusive 
pot culture, and for early forcing, all its advantages 
are secured. 

Diseases. — When a systematic course of culture, 
such as we have attempted to describe, is fully 
carried out, there will be no losses from disease. 
It might be observed that what is termed rot, will 
only occur when the roots are in a wet soil, or one 
that is too rich. Mildew will also be seldom seen, 
if at all, in the above system of culture. It is de- 
stroyed by sulphur, and, as we have already ob- 
served, washing the interior woodwork with a 
solution of lime and sulphur is an excellent pre- 
ventive both against mildew, and the attacks of 
such insects as thrip and red spider. The causes 
that produce mildew have not been thoroughly 
defined. Extreme, or sudden changes of atmosphere, 
are the commonly received reasons. We have long 
considered that it originates from dry air acting 
upon tender vegetable tissue ; our cultural practice 
is based upon this supposition, and, not to discuss 
the subject further, it maybe stated that when fully 
carried out, we never have any mildew in graperies. 
5 • 



50 PRUNING. 

Pruning. — When a seed is placed in a germina- 
ting medium, it sends a shoot upwards in the air, 
and roots downwards in the earth. The seed con- 
tains within itself the nutriment necessary for this 
process ; but as soon as the young plant is thus 
formed, its mode of existence is changed, and it 
then depends upon the air and soil for its further 
developement. The young roots absorb matter 
from the earth which enters into the stem, and 
from that to the leaves where it is decomposed by 
the action of light. This elaborated sap is then 
returned downwards, enlarging the stem, and pass- 
ing into the roots, extending their formation. 
Such, we are told, is the theory of vegetable 
growth. It is considered that the carbonic acid 
and other matter that is absorbed by the roots, is 
of no value until it undergoes this decomposition 
in the leaves ; consequently, the increase in size of 
the plant, the quantity of its secretions, and ex- 
tension of roots, are all dependent upon the amount 
of foliage. Any system of pruning, therefore, that 
involves a removal of leaves, must also injure the 
health and vigor of the plant. It is an axiom with 
horticulturists that summer pruning weakens, while 
winter pruning strengthens a tree. Hence, on 
strong growing barren fruit trees, summer pruning 
is practiced in order to check their vigor and 
cause them to bear ; while on the other hand an 
old or sickly tree will generally start with renewed 
vigor if severely pruned in winter. These rules 



SHORT AND ALTERNATE SPURRING. 51 

should be kept in view while discussing systems of 
pruning. 

The short spurring system of pruning grape 
vines is very simple and easily understood. A 
single shoot is encouraged until it reaches the 
desired length. The bearing shoots issue at in- 
tervals from this main shoot, and are cut down to 
one or two eyes in the winter pruning. The sum- 
mer pruning consists in pinching out the extremity 
of every shoot one or two leaves beyond the fruit; 
all lateral growths are also pinched back. Growth 
is thus prevented from extending, and the vigor of 
the plant is consequently concentrated into the 
short fruit-bearing shoot. The leading shoot is 
also stopped of its longitudinal growth to throw 
more strength into the side branches. This is a 
popular method of treating grapes under glass, but 
not adapted to native varieties. 

Alternate spurring is considered an improve- 
ment upon the above. In spur pruning, the shoots 
are cut down to one or two buds, thus sacrificing 
better developed buds nearer the extremity of the 
branch. Alternate spurring proposes to remedy 
this. Supposing the branch has ten buds or eyes,| 
and the sixth from the main stem appears most 
fully developed, the branch is cut down to it. It 
and the first bud, (the one nearest the main stem,) 
are undisturbed, and the intermediate four buds 
are cut out. When growth commences, these two 
buds will form two shoots whose future treatment 



52 RENEWAL SYSTEM. 

is quite distinct. The extreme bud produces the 
present crop, while the lower bud forms a shoot to 
bear next year's produce, and the fruit that ap- 
pears on it is removed. The summer treatment 
of these shoots is simple. The bearing branch 
should have its extreme point pinched out two or 
three leaves beyond the bunch of fruit, and all 
subsequent growths quickly checked. The lower 
branch, which is not allowed to fruit, should 
extend undisturbed until midsummer, when the 
extreme point should be pinched off. As soon as 
the fruit is gathered, the branch that produced it 
is to be cut clean out, which will throw much 
vigor in the maturing of the branch that is to 
bear the future crop ; this branch will in the 
winter pruning, undergo the same treatment as its 
predecessor — that is, pruned down to the best bud, 
all others being removed except the lowermost, as 
before. 

The long cane renewal system has its chief 
recommendation in the yearly production of a 
long cane of young wood. The finest and earliest 
fruit, it will have been observed, is always pro- 
duced on such shoots. Any system of culture, 
therefore, that produces these, we would pronounce 
to be good ; we therefore think much of the re- 
newal mode. It is simply a more effectual carrying 
out of the alternate spurring method ; and is what 
we have explained more fully in our previous 
remarks on native grapes. 



KEEPING GRAPES ON THE VINES. 53 

Pruning on this method combines all the advan- 
tages of close spurring, while the greater amount 
of healthy foliage retained, supports a healthy and 
increasing root action. We prefer it to all other 
modes of pruning. 

Keeping Grapes on the Vines. — As remarked 
when treating on the cold grapery, the fruit may 
be kept several weeks or even months after ripen- 
ing. Some kinds keep better than others. The 
difference seems to depend upon the proportion of 
sugar they respectively form ; the sweetest grapes 
keep best, the most acid, worst. The Muscats will 
keep longer than the Black Hamburgh. Others 
are late in ripening and hang well after maturity, 
such as Prince Albert, Black Ferrar and Lady 
Down's seedling. 

The practical points of attention in keeping 
grapes on the vines are first, to keep the house 
and atmosphere dry; and secondly, to keep the 
roots and soil dry. During damp weather it will 
be necessary to open the ventilators and put on a 
slight fire which will expel the damp. A slight 
shading on the glass is also favorable. Much 
depends on keeping the soil dry, and with regard 
to this, the practice of making all the border under 
glass, where it can be kept dry when required is 
most useful. Covering outside borders with shut- 
ters so as to throw off rains will be essential and 
absolutely necessary to preserve ripe fruit. At- 



54 KINDS TO PLANT. 

tention to these points will enable the cultivator to 
keep grapes for months. 

Kinds to Plant. — For a cold grapery requiring 
forty plants we would recommend the following 
proportions. Twelve Black Hamburgh, two 
White Frontignac, two Black Frontignac, two 
Golden Hamburgh, two Muscat of Alexandria, 
six Victoria, two Chasselas Fontainebleau, one 
White Gascoigne, two Black Prince, two West's 
St. Peter's, two Muscat Hamburgh, two Malvasia, 
one Black Ferrar, and two Lady Down's Seedling. 

For the forcing house we would substitute, two 
Chasselas Musque, two Bowood Muscat, and two 
Muscat of Alexandria, for White Gascoigne, 
West's St. Peter's, Black Ferrar and Lady Down's 
in the previous list. 

For pot culture, Black Hamburgh, White Fron- 
tignac, Black Prince, Chasselas Fontainebleau, 
Chasselas Musque, and Wilmot's Black Ham- 
burgh will give most satisfaction. 

In the foregoing brief essay on grape culture, 
we have purposely refrained from entering into a 
lengthened discussion of the theory of the subject, 
or canvassing disputed points, believing that a 
detail of successful practice would be more in 
accordance with the requirements of the " Farmer 
and Gardener.'* 



ifihtstsio GKEL^iPiHrsr, 



IN ITS APPLICATION TO 



GEAPE CULTUEE, 



BY F. J. COPE. 



It may be deemed presumptuous, at the present 
day, to assert, that our whole system of fruit cul- 
ture is based upon incorrect principles, and is, 
therefore, erroneous. 

We should reason from what we know. Any 
hypothesis deduced from false premises, cannot 
long withstand the test of rational scrutiny. 

In discussing the subject of vine culture, let us, 
then, begin at the beginning. 

When, on the "third day" of the Creation, the 
Great Architect of the universe formed the "grass, 
the herb-yielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding 
fruit after his kind," He saw that it " was good." 
And on the " sixth day," when all his labors were 
finished, He pronounced " every thing that He had 
made very good." From the vast vault of heaven, 
spangled with the twinkling gems of night, — far, 
far away into illimitable space, where unseen as- 
teroids obey the laws of gravitation and attrac- 



56 VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL ORGANISMS. 

tion, down through the air to the rugged earth, 
one harmonious whole performs the legitimate 
functions in its several parts. From the lowliest 
Fucoid that grows in the sea, up to the stateliest 
Cedars of Lebanon, or the Sequoia Gigantea upon 
our own continent ; — from the most minute, infin- 
itesimal Infusoria, up to the most majestic Pachy.- 
derm, the hand of nature implanted no germs of 
disease, although she provided ample stores of 
remedial agents, to be used at another epoch, by 
succeeding generations of her creatures. 

There is a closer affinity between the animal and 
vegetable organisms than most of us are willing to 
admit. Discarding the untenable, though in many 
respects plausible, "development theory " of Mail- 
let and Lamarck, we must not run into the other 
extreme, and deny that there is any similarity in 
any portion of animal and vegetable physiology. 
We know that plants, as well as animals eat; 
that they breathe, perspire, and are sensitive to 
the touch. "We know that they have sexes, and a 
circulatory aparatus ; that they sleep, although, 
unlike the sluggard, the first rays of the morning 
light awakens them, to join, it may be, although 
their voices are inaudible to the human ear, the 
songs of thanksgiving and praise that resound 
from the feathered vocalists. They send their 
messages of love through the ambient air that 
they perfume with many odors, employing the 
busy bee, which becomes the Cupid in the do- 



THE AUTHOR'S PLATFORM. 5f 

minions of Flora and Pomona, inviting willing 
mates to connubial felicity, and thus they, too, 
" multiply, replenish, and adorn the earth." 

It is man alone that mars this glorious scene, by 
his futile attempts to improve what the hand of 
Deity had already made perfect. 

I submit and' defend these simple propositions : 

First. We stimulate too freely. 

Second. We prune too much, and 

Third. The more we depart from the dictates 
of nature, the more rapid will be the ravages of 
disease, and the ultimate destruction of the culti- 
vated fruits. 

Yon Martius, a learned German author, pub- 
lished several years ago, a history of the diseases of 
the potato. From this work, I extract the follow- 
ing passages as applicable to my first proposition : 

"However great the extent," says he, "to which 
cultivation and civilization has improved the little 
Peruvian exile, (the potato,) yet, like all other 
things redeemed from barbarism, and removed 
from the wild vigor of nature, a weakness of 
constitution has been fastened upon it, and the 
stimulus of too much culture is diminishing its 
powers It has been discovered in this, as it has 
been in all departments of breeding, whether in 
the vegetable or animal kingdom, where the culti- 
vation is artificial or overdone, that there is a 
determined disposition to return to its original 
and natural condition." 



58 EFFECTS OP CULTIVATION. 

Some poniologists, and many other people, too, 
assert that the little sour crab is the type of the 
whole genus Malus, from whence is derived all 
the luscious varieties that we now have, and that 
these varieties have been produced by cultivation. 

If the " forbidden fruit," in the garden of Eden, 
was really an apple, according to our definition of 
the term, then it must, according to the pomolo- 
gists and others aforesaid, have been a crab. "We 
may, or may not, consider it "pleasant to the 
eyes," but surely none of us admit it to be " good 
for food." 

Cultivation never has, and in all probability 
never will, effect any considerable change in the 
austereness of the wild crab apple. Recent ex- 
periments with it have only resulted in diseasing 
the tree, and rendering it short-lived. And what 
has cultivation done for some of our oldest and 
most favorite varieties ? It is well known that the 
Rambo, a native of Pennsylvania, is extensively 
diseased ; that with all the care we bestow upon it, 
the tree is becoming more tender every year, and 
the fruit scabby, ill-shaped, and wormy. So with 
the green and yellow Pippin, the Yandevere, and 
many other sorts. The pear has fared very little 
better ; the cherry and the plum decidedly worse. 
We have rendered the tissues of the latter so 
extremely tender and delicate, that the super- 
abundant juices have burst their avenues of cir- 
culation, and formed unsightly "black knots" upon 



EFFECTS OF HIGH CULTIVATION. 59 

the branches, in which the curculio now propa- 
gates its species. 

The assertion that this disease of the plum is 
caused by the curculio, is proven to be erroneous : 
on the contrary, it is susceptible of demonstration, 
that the insect deposits its larva in the excres- 
cence after the latter has been formed, and there 
finds congenial nourishment in the absence of 
fruit, which is its natural food. 

Nor have the Cereals escaped the baleful 
effects of this undesigned raid upon their produc- 
tive capacities. The Midge, the Hessian-fly, the 
Army-worm, the Grub, and the Cut-worm, have 
been invited to feast upon the banquet that is 
annually spread by the cupidity of the "lord of 
creation," himself a living example of the effemi- 
nacy produced by a false system of dietetic indul- 
gence. One would naturally suppose that rational 
man would have been admonished by the direful 
effects of his cuisine refinements, to abstain from 
applying to vegetable and animal life, which 
constitute his food, the stimulating processes that 
have been the bane of his own. The cutaneous 
eruptions, dyspepsia, the caries in his teeth, the 
baldness of his head, the loss of vitality in his hair ; 
in short, the enervation of all his physical powers, 
might warn him to beware how he should use the 
dominion that has been entrusted to his keeping : 
but he looks not beyond the gratification of to-day, 
and makes little provision for the generation that 



60 PREDACIOUS INSECTS. 

is to succeed him. Literally, in this, " he takes no 
heed for the morrow." 

One of the lecturers at "Old Yale," recom- 
mends importation of some families of the Ichneu- 
monidae, to extirpate the wheat Midge, without 
reflecting that we may " get more than we bargain 
for." Are we sure that the Ichneumon fly would 
die out to accommodate us, just after it had per- 
formed the duty we had required of it ? It may 
alter its diet. Who knows what it would then be ? 

Two years ago I sought for the cocoon of the 
"Peacock Butterfly," (Papilio pavonia,) for the 
purpose of filling a void in my entomological col- 
lection. I found many of them ; but in every 
instance, the substance of the chrysalides had been 
abstracted by some predacious insect. The strong, 
rough fibres of the cocoon had been misplaced and 
fixed by a glutinous substance, so that an aperture 
about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter was 
formed, to admit the ingress of the insect, and the 
egress of the new-born Ichneumonidan, which had 
thus been provided with a snug habitation, and an 
abundance of good fare. This winter I find the 
cocoons all perfectly sound. Has the insect found 
more congenial food ? Was it driven to this sys- 
tem of foraging by some dire necessity? May not 
the same causes produce the same effects in other 
department of insect life ? 

Another lecturer at Yale College has asserted 
that it is only since the destruction of our forests. 



ENTOMOLOGICAL ERRORS. 61 

in which the natural food of insects now injurious 
to cultivated trees was formerly obtained, that 
they have been induced to attack the latter. Is 
not this an argument against the propriety and 
expediency of importing the Ichneumon fly? 

Great men, as well as common folks, sometimes 
make great mistakes. Huber asserted, that the 
neuter or Worker-bee, was nothing more nor less 
than an "imperfect female!" That is mere con- 
jecture, and will not answer in this matter of fact 
age. God never made whole races of His creatures 
mere abortions. He permits monstrosities occa- 
sionally, but never made so gross a mistake in the 
organism of an entire class. 

But it may be objected, that this is foreign to 
the subject in hand. The general principles are 
undoubtedly applicable. No system of culture, 
whether of animals or vegetables, can be perma- 
nently successful, which overlooks or discards 
them. 

We may speak with great confidence of the 
success attending particular methods of applying 
various combinations of fertilizing substances. We 
may describe minutely, the time and the mode of 
pruning and training the vine, which produced 
such present magnificent results ; and after all, it 
may be only the "killing of the goose that laid 
the golden eggs." We should write, and work, and 
think, not alone for the benefit of the present, but 
for succeeding generations as well. We should be 
6 



62 AMERICAN GRAPE VINES. 

contented with a moderate return from the boun- 
teous bosom of the earth, for the little that we can 
bestow upon it, or that nature requires form us. 
Nature and art will harmonize only so long as no 
violence is done to established laws. Production 
will have its compensation. It demands no more ; 
it will take no less. 

Persia has generally been supposed to be the 
native country of the vine. This supposition, 
howover, arose from the fact, that the earlier his- 
torians were totally unacquainted with the luxu- 
riance of its growth over the entire American 
continent. In the several States of this Union, 
from those on the south possessing a temperature 
almost as hot as the tropics, away up to the far- 
thermost limits of Maine, on our northern border, 
the forests almost every where afford evidences of 
its primeval growth. The adaptation of our soil 
and climate, diversified as they are, to its healthful 
development, is manifested in the gigantic pro- 
portions which it frequently attains. On the hills 
north and south of the beautiful little valley in 
which I live, they cover the tops of the tallest 
trees, more than seventy feet high. Many of them 
are four and five inches in diameter. One of them 
is over seven. 

On an adjoining farm, by the side of a little 
brook that rolls its crystal waters through a 
beautiful natural meadow covered with a virgin 
sod that the plow had never disturbed, there stood, 



MAMMOTH VINE. 63 

thirty years ago, a majestic elm. Out of the soil 
between two of its mammoth roots, grew a vine, 
(the Vitis aestivalis,) that was then thirty-one 
inches in circumference ! I have sat beneath its 
ample shade, to eat the evening meal, while the 
odors of new-mown hay, mingled with the perfume 
of the Vitis cordifolia in an adjoining grove, im- 
parted a relish to the frugal repast, which mo 
culinary art could bestow. Such a vine was a fit 
companion to embrace such a tree. There they 
had both grown for ages, not a branch nor a twig 
of either diseased ; drawing abundant supplies of 
nourishment from the earth and the air, and cast- 
a deep shadow in the noontide sun, forty feet in 
diameter ! Nature had abundantly furnished them 
with food prepared from the debris of extinct or- 
ganisms ; for Byron has truthfully said, 

"The dust we tread upon, was once alive." 

"Wild strawberries, (Fragaria Virginiana, and 
F. Canadensis,) the raspberry, blackberry, wild 
plum, wild cherry, black walnut, butter-nut, [Jug- 
lans cathartica vel Cinerea,) hickory-nut, (Juglans 
squamosa, of Michaux,) and the hazel-nut, all grow 
luxuriantly, and produce abundant crops of fruit, 
in the same little vale. Are such facts as these, 
and the lessons they are so well calculated to 
teach, to remain for ever unheeded in our civili- 
zation ? 
There are living examples all around me, of how 



64 HOW NATURE PROPAGATES. 

little nature requires at the hands of man, to make 
the vine prolific, and keep it in robust health for 
unknown ages. Drawing my lessons principally 
from the volume she opens out before me, I draw 
scantily from the pages of Bede, of Lombarde, 
of Loudon, of Morier, of Hoare, of Marsh, of 
Walter, of Bartram, or of any of the thousand 
others whose dogmas are the vade mecum of our 
culturists. Valuable as any of the suggestions 
undoubtedly are, which some of them make, I 
"pin my faith" exclusively upon neither of them, 
believing, as I do, with our native poet, Street, 
that 

"Nature is man's teacher. She unfolds 
Her treasures to his search, unseals his eye, 
Illumes his mind, and purines his heart; 
An influence breathes from all the sights and sounds 
Of her existence." 

Nature never propagates by scions or cuttings ; 
she does, sometimes, by layers ; more frequently 
by sprouts ; but generally by seeds. The latter 
may be said to be the rule — the others merely 
exceptions. I am convinced by experience and 
observation, that no vine can very long maintain 
its original vigor, which has been for a series of 
years annually pruned in nursery style, and the 
denuded branches thus obtained, forced into the 
germs of a separate organization. 

Oxygen is the great leveling agent of nature. 
It reduces with equal facility, the hardest steel 



MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION. 65 

and the softest tissues, into their original elements. 
It is present every where to begin its labors of 
decomposition, where moisture comes to its aid, 
and the principle of life has been attacked. Its 
ravages may be arrested ; but the work it has done, 
it has performed effectually, and is past reparation. 
Let us reason about it. 

No human eye, unaided by the microscope, can 
detect the change that almost instantly occurs in 
the sap of the vine when in active circulation, 
after it has been separated from the parent stock. 
Without the intelligent use of this instrument, 
no one is qualified to assert, that healthy vines 
have been grown from scions several days old, to 
say nothing of those which may be weeks and 
months in a state of suspended functional activity. 
We may be deceived by apparent healthfulness in 
the vegetable economy, as we often are by the 
hectic flush upon the cheek of the unfortunate 
consumptive. The germs of disease are neverthe- 
less there. The offspring may for awhile manifest 
no symptoms of the delicacy and disease which 
have been transmitted to it. But when surround- 
ing circumstances favor their development, death 
claims alike for his own, the tender vine that 
clings for support to some stalwart tree, and the 
hapless child that yields up the transient present 
for a better and more enduring life. Oxygen 
labors for both, living or dying. 

The theory, for many years generally accepted, 



66 OLD THEORY EXPLODED. 

that plants took up that portion of their nourish- 
ment which they derive from the earth, exclusively 
by means of little vessels termed spongioles, situ- 
ated at the points of the small fibrous roots, has 
been but recently exploded, although its incorrect- 
ness was susceptible of very easy demonstration. 
It required only the authority of some great name 
to give it credence ; and in like manner, the public 
judgment seems only to require the ipse dixit of 
some pseudo savant to nullify it. And now the 
arboriculturist wonders that he has been so long 
deceived! Is it not time that we should be 
enlightened upon some other points in vegetable 
physiology? Who, with a sufficient capacity to 
comprehend the phenomena of plant-life, will de- 
vote his attention, his time and his talents to such 
a pursuit? Are we to plod along, and stumble 
upon facts only as they come in our way? Or 
shall some one, availing himself of the fragments 
of thought and opinion already evolved, analyze 
the crude mass, and give us a reliable diagnosis ? 
I hope the "Farmer and Gardener 11 will be one 
of the channels through which we will at length 
reach such a desideratum. 

The vine, in Europe, has a history. Here, in the 
new world, the reliable data upon which it must be 
based, are not yet collected and arranged. The in- 
terchange of opinion in this, as it is in every other 
department of human knowledge, is desirable, if 
not essential, to a correct understanding of the 



THE VINE IN OLDEN TIME. 67 

causes which lead to progress, to culmination, or 
to decay. 

Neither Caesar, Pliny, nor Tacitus, notice the 
vine in their descriptions of Great Britain ; but in 
the commencement of the eighth century, we know 
that some progress had been made in its cultiva- 
tion ; and in the latter part of the ninth, mention 
is made of it in the laws of Alfred. During the 
reign of the second Edward, excellent wine, we are 
told, was made in England. William ot Malms- 
bury, speaking of the vale of Gloucester, says: 
"This district, too, exhibits a greater number of 
vineyards than any other county in England, 
yielding abundant crops, and of superior quality." 
Again, speaking of the Isle of Ely, he says, the 
soil "is covered with vines, which either trail on 
the ground, or are trained on high, and supported 
on poles." The vine grew so plentifully during 
the time of Richard II., in Windsor Little Park, 
that part of the wine made there was sold for the 
king's profit. 

Why vineyards should have so completely disap- 
peared in that country, as is well-known at this 
time, would be an interesting inquiry, and might 
shed much light upon the mode of cultivation, to 
which, in all probability, their abandonment may, 
in a great degree, be attributable. The soil and 
climate so favorable to them, then, are the same 
now. 

In a state of nature, the vine, ( Vitis vuljpina, of 



68 microscopic deTelopements. 

Bartram,) is more abundantly supplied with small 
roots, than when highly cultivated. The texture 
of the woody fibres more compact ; the pores of 
the vascular tissue not so well defined, but more 
numerous, and the number of its medullary rays 
greater, but less marked. Cultivation has un- 
doubtedly effected these changes, whether for the 
" better or worse," remains, perhaps, to be deter- 
mined. What share pruning has had, in this meta- 
morphosis is, I think, easily demonstrable. 

By the use of a powerful microscope, the mouths 
of the pores may be seen all over the surface of 
the roots. Through these, the aliment prepared 
in the earth enters, and is taken up into the circu- 
lation, each pore conveying its proportion toward 
the point where its other extremity terminates. 
Now, when a branch of any considerable size is 
cut off, the sap destined for its support and nour- 
ishment, must do one of three things — either go 
back to the earth — be absorbed by other contig- 
uous portions of the vine — or remain in the sur- 
charged vessels, to undergo the chemical changes 
which precede decomposition. Which is it? 

I have lying before me, a longitudinal section of 
a pruned (Isabella,) and another of an unpruned 
one. I have, also, transverse sections of the same 
vines, showing the enlarged pores on the side of 
the pruned specimen, below the point where the 
branch was cut off, and the incipient decay is 
;learly visible by the use of the microscope. I 



MODERN PRUNING. 69 

am sorry that I am not expert at drawing, to 
enable me to illustrate this fact. But such of 
your readers as are sceptical upon the subject, 
can readily satisfy themselves by instituting a 
similar examination. 

Here, then, commences the struggle between 
nature and art. Will there always be recupera- 
tive energy enough in the former to triumph ? I 
think not. She may withstand many assaults, but 
each time with diminished powers. Does it re- 
quire any extraordinary prescience to see the final 
result ? 

In this latitude — in good old Pennsylvania — 
where the soil and the climate seem peculiarly 
adapted to the vine, the pruning is generally done 
after the fashion of European models, and by Ger- 
mans, almost every one of whom claims to know 
how to dress " ein vein-garten" whether he comes 
originally from the vine clad hills of the Ehine, 
or the cold, barren wastes of "Westphalia ; .and 
whether the subject of his manipulations be trans- 
ported from Hamburgh, or be "to the manor 
born," he cuts and slashes away, with as little 
thought about the difference between an exotic 
and an indigenous plant, as he is capable of giving 
about the requirements of either, even in his own 
"vaterland." Save us from such empiricism as 
this, spirit of Esculapius ! 

The healthiest and most prolific vines 1 have 
ever seen, are those that have never been pruned 



70 HOW TO GET HEALTHY VINES. 

at all. But it is unsafe to cite particular cases to 
sustain a general rule in vine culture. There are 
bo may circumstances to be duly weighed and 
considered — those of exposure, consituents of soil, 
situation, &c, &c, that what is applicable in one 
instance, may not be so in another. 

Now, friend Spangler, having given you " quan- 
tum sufficit" of "premonitory symptoms," here fol- 
loweth my prescription. I give it with all becoming 
humility and deference to the opinions of the great 
doctors: 

If you want healthy vines, such as your children, 
your grand-children, and great-grand-children, as 
well as yourself, may eat the fruit of, procure the 
seeds of good healthy grapes that you think suit- 
able to your locality. Plant them in a pot filled 
with good garden soil. When two years old, set 
them out where you wish them to remain. Train 
them against the side of a house, facing the east 
or southeast — against any other building — a wall, 
along a trellis, or on a fence. Never cut off a large 
branch. If any small ones show signs of weakness, 
take them off in the fall. Pinch off any sprouts 
that may arise, either from the root or the main 
stem, after the fruit has set. Let the leaves alone 
— they will drop off time enough. Train up but 
one main stem. Divide and spread the branches 
annually in such a way as to give the whole the 
benefit of air and light, as much as possible. 
About every third year, remove the surface soil, 



FERTILIZERS AND SEEDLINGS. 11 

and replace it with a compost of lime and leaf- 
mould, in proportions of one-eighth of the former. 
Well decayed saw-dust of deciduous trees, will do 
in place of the mould. 

I am inclined to think, that the whole theory of 
fertilizing " lies in a nut-shell." Such substances 
as have the power of absorbing, and imparting 
moisture slowly, are the best. The vine requires 
a liberal supply of this element, but it should be 
imparted steadily and not excessively. Mulching 
is almost indispensable, at any stage of its growth. 
In the forests, this is supplied by the annual falling 
of leaves. You will always find, that a wild vine 
thrives the best, where the soil around it is thickly 
covered with leaves. 

It may be objected, that this seedling business 
would be rather a slow process for this fast age ; 
and that if the parent is unsound, the seed also will 
be more or less so. True, but in the first case, 
it will be found to be the surest ; and in the second, 
the chances are in our favor. Think a little. Sup- 
pose every one in this country who wishes to enjoy 
this delicious fruit, would plant seeds of the Frank- 
lin, the Delaware, the Clinton, Isabella, Catawba, 
Concord, Diana, or any other so-called natives, 
would there not be, in a few years, plenty of them 
better than either of the originals? Taking the 
seeds of the best of these again, could we place a 
limit to the ultimate improvement of which they 
are susceptible ? Friends of the vine every where, 



T2 CONCLUDING HINTS. 

try it. Encourage your little girls to try it. Let 
them begin now. Don't be driven from your pur- 
pose by the clamor that may be raised against it. 
Your children, if you are fortunate enough to have 
any, will take delight in watching the development 
of the young plant, trained by their young hands. 
I know it. And oh ! what a recompense it will be, 
to partake with them, of these offerings of little 
goddesses, no less sacred to you, than was Concor- 
dia to the ancient Romans, though the altars you 
rear to your household deities are only raised, 
unseen, but not unfelt, in your heart of hearts. 

If you wish to have well-established varieties, 
either native or foreign, I would recommend plant- 
ing the eyes or buds, with a small portion of wood 
attached. I think they grow more readily than 
whole scions ; they are hardier, and can be more 
easily attended. Besides, they have less room for 
disease, and you increase the chances of securing 
a plant of a favorite variety. Treat them as 
directed for seedlings. 

Lastly; if you are in a hurry, trust to the 
honesty of some well-known vender, and get 
rooted plants of such kinds as you want. Plant 
them and treat them as directed for seedlings — 
and may their shadow never grow less, nor the 
juice of the grapes they may yield, ever be per- 
verted to inebriate another Lot. 



A CONTRIBUTION 

TO THE 

CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES AND VARIETIES 

TO THE 

GRAPE YINE: 

WITH A FEW HINTS ON CULTURE. 



BY J. M. M'MINN, CIVIL ENGINEER. 



The following remarks have been prepared 
from notes and observations made during the last 
twenty-five years, which period of my life has been 
devoted to the active scenes and operations of 
rural life, and separated in a great measure from 
the advantages of scientific association, or recourse 
to libraries. Whilst this attempt at classification 
will embrace a large amount of practical observa- 
tion, it will probably, not embody the settled 
deductions of scientific research, and will therefore, 
be susceptible of important changes and correc- 
tions. For this reason I have not attempted to 
establish the number of species of grapes now 
known, nor to settle either the identity of varieties, 
or their origin ; my reasons for this, are, that I am 
fully sensible that in some instances at least, some 
such decisions would not be admitted. I shall 
1 (T3) 



74 SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

present only what I conceive to be the correct 
conclusions, of practical cultivators, and admitted 
scientific authorities. If, therefore, n?y attempts 
at classification have not been entirely successful. 
I am led to hope that this, almost the first effort 
made in this direction in this country, may lead 
others to follow in the path pointed out, and that 
the result will be a full and complete classification 
of species and varieties. 

The learned Agassis says: — "Species exist in 
nature in the same manner as any other natural 
group ; they are based upon well determined rela- 
tions to individuals, to one another, and to the 
world around them, and upon proportions, the 
ornamentation, and the relations of their parts." 

Varieties are produced by hybridizing, that is, 
mixing the pollen of one species or variety, with 
the pollen of another. This is very readily done in 
the grape by the numerous insects which fre- 
quent the flowers of this plant. Burying their 
feet and other organs in the pollen of the flowers 
of one species, they carry it to another species, 
and thus impregnate the organs of the latter. A 
hybrid is the result, by reproduction of the seeds, 
and new varieties are thus multiplied in almost 
countless numbers. But varieties are never per- 
manent. If they are the products of hybridization 
they return to their original in the third or fourth 
generation. Varieties are also produced tempo- 
rarily by climate, soil and cultivation, but the 



DERIVATION OP NAME. 15 

specific identity is never permanently lost by 
propagation by seed ; the hybrid therefore, can 
only be continued by grafting, layers, or by main- 
taining the wood and vessels of this artificial 
variety. 

The Grape belongs to the natural order Vztacce 
of Jessien, and to the class Pentandria and order 
Monogynia, in the artificial system of Linnaeus. 
The flowers in the species found in the old world 
are generally perfect, but in the American species, 
they are seldom perfect, and frequently, the male 
and female flowers are on different plants, hence 
the early confusion in our books assigning some of 
the American and Asiatic species to different 
genera. 

The name Yitis was adopted by Tourneforte, 
and accepted by Linnseus, (see Genera Plantarium, 
1764, page 112,) and is now the established name 
in botanical language for the grape vine through- 
out the world. Yitis is derived from the Celtic 
Givid, "the best of trees;" from which comes 
Gwin the name of wine in the same language, 
oivo$, in Greek, Vinum in Latin, Vigna Italian, 
Vigne French. 

The vine has probably engaged as much of 
attention as any other object in the vegetable 
world. It has been co-eval with civilization at all 
times, and in all counties south of 50° of north 
latitude, and north of 30° from the equator. It 
succeeds best in countries where the mean summer 
temperature is between 67° and 69°. Fabulous 



76 CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES. 

history informs us that Bacchus and Osiris were 
the first who instructed men in the cultivation of 
the vine, and in drawing from it, its inspiring 
virtues. Noah planted a vineyard and the spies 
sent by Moses into the land of Canaan, started at 
the ripening of the first grapes ; and in many 
places throughout the Sacred Volume, wine is 
mentioned in connection with its use and abuse. 
Many of the stories related by ancient writers in 
regard to this fruit have been deemed fabulous. 
It is stated in the Bible, that at the brook of 
Eschol a cluster was cut down and borne into 
camp by two men ; but in modern times, we have 
authority for asserting that bunches have been 
found in the Valley of Hebron, so large that two 
men could scarcely carry one of them. The 
writings of Forster, Eosenmuller and Morden, 
would seem to confirm these statements. 

Scarcely a writer of ancient times, passed the 
vine unnoticed, if nothing more than to extol the 
virtues of its fruit ; but no systematic classification 
was attempted until modern times, when 170 
species have been described, but owing to the 
want of an unfailing standard or criterion of spe- 
cific identity, many varieties have been classed as 
species, and a careful revision of the family leaves 
but seventy distinct species. Although Europe is 
now the great land of the vine, it does not furnish 
a single native species. 

India and Turkey furnish twenty-eight species 
as follows : — 



FOREIGN VARIETIES. ft 

VlTIS BRACTEOLA, Wallich. VlTIS NOVEMFOLIA, "Wall. 

" CINNAMOMEA, Wall. " OBTECTA, Wall. 

" COSTATA, Wall. " PARVIFOLIA, ROX. 

" fluminicola, Steund. " peduncularis, Wall. 

" GRACILLIS, Wall. " POLYSTACHYA, Wall. 

" hederacea, Wall. " purani, Hamill. 

" ixdica, Linnseus. " rubifolia, Wall. 

" IRAWADYANA, Steund. " RUGOSA, Wall. 

" LAETA, Wall. " SCABRIUSCULA, Wall. 

" LANATA, Roxburg. " 8EMIC0RDATA, Wall. 

" latifolia, Rox. " tomentosa, Heyn. 

" MOLLISSIMA, Wall. " TRICOPHORA, Wall. 

" vinifera, Linnaeus. 

The Island of Jamacia furnishes the Vitis 
Caribaea, De Candolle. 
Silket yields the Vitis Mollis, Wall. 

Africa produces 
Vitis africanus, Sprengel. Vitis erythroides, Fresen. 
Vitis hispida, Eckl. 

Nepal produces 
Vitis atroviridis, Wall. Vitis glandulosa, Wall. 

" capreolata, Don. " Wallichii, Dec. 

China produces 
Vitis bryoni;efolia, Bnnge. Vitis ficifolia, Bunge. 
Japan produces 
Vitis flexuosa, Thunb. 
Java produces 
Vitis acymosa, Blume. Vitis javanica. Sprengel. 

" heterophyli.a, Thunb. " sylvestris, Blum. 

Vitis truncata, Tburnb. 

The Vitis laciniosa (Lin.,) and the V. omen- 
talis, (of Clem) are in dispute. 

South America claims 
Vitis blanda, Vahl. Vitis sinuata, Don. 

11 rubra, Desf. 7* " tilijefolia, Willd. 



78 NORTH- AMERICAN VARIETIES. 

These names are generally applied to the above 
species, but their synonyms exceed three hundred 
names, which will not be recited in this article. 

We will now pass to the North American 
species, and present their synonyms. 

VlTIS BIPINNATA, T & G. VlTIS BLANDA, " 

" AMPELOPSIS BIPINNATA, " PROL1FICA, " 
Mich. " OBOVATA, " 

" cissus stans, Persoon. " labruscoides, " 

" pullaria, Le Conte. " tenuifolia, Le Conte. 

" ARBOREA, Willd CISSU8 TENUIFOLIA. " 

" bipinnata, Elliott. Vitis jestivalis, Michaux. 
" incisa. Nuttall. labrusca Elliott. 

" iNDiyisA, Willdenow. araneosa, of authors. 

^stivalis, Elliott. Vitis intermedia, Muhlenberg. 
bracteala, Raffinesque. aestivalis, Darlington, 

Ampelopsis cordata, Michaux. bicolor, Le Conte. 

Cissus ampelopsis, Persoon. Vitis ripakia, Michaux. 
Vitis vulpina, Willdenow. incisa, Wallman. 

cordifolta, Michaux. Vitis odoratissima, Don. 
callosa, Raffinesque. riParia, Torrey & Gray. 

Vitis hyemalis, " Vitus rotundifolia, Michaux. 
" labrusca, Linn£eus. vulpina, Walter. 

" labruscoides, Muhlenb'g. verrucosa, Michaux. 

" srLVESTRis, Bartram. acerifolia, Raffinesque 

" OCCIDENTALIS, " ANGULATA " 

" vulpina, Marshall. Vitis palmata, Vahl. 

" canina, Raffinesque. " virginiana, Poir. 

" rugosa, " " rubra, Desf. 

" ferruginea, " " californica, Benth. 

" latifolia, " " ruprestris, Scheele. 

" luteola, Raffinesque. " carib^a, Swartz. 

Of these four are "fox grapes," four " chicken 
grapes," three "summer grapes," four very small 
acidulous grapes, and one very thick skinned sweet 
grape. 

The northern fox grape is the Yitis Labrusca, 



NORTH-AMERICAN VARIETIES. Y9 

and is known by the common name of Schuylkill, 
Alexander, Tasker. Venango, Wyoming, Susque- 
hanna, Bald Eagle, Catawissa, Muncy, Luffborough, 
Philadelphia, Poplar, Alleghany, and Dog grapes, 
and rusty, white, red, purple, blue and black fox 
grapes in Pennsylvania. 

In New York they have Cattskill, Clifton, 
Powell, Mazzie, Utica, Lake and rugose grapes, 
and green, white, red and bland fox grape. 

In Ohio they have Venango, Odd-leaf, River, 
Prairie, and Ohio grapes, and white, blue and 
black fox grapes. 

In the south, they have Kentucky, Carolina, 
Huling, Alleghany, Ozark, Rockhouse, Indian, 
Sandhill, and purple plum grapes, and a host of 
other local names. 

Then in addition to the above are the hybrid 
tarieties, Catawba, Isabella, Concord, Diana, Gar- 
rigues, Hartford Prolific, Hudson, Hyde's Eliza, 
Louisa, Marion, To Kalon, Wymar, Union Village, 
Red Muncy, Raabe, Tokay, White Catawba, Mam- 
moth Catawba, Clinton, Northern Muscadel, and 
Muscadine, Cape, Spring Mills, Constantia, Winne, 
Lyman, Charter Oak, Maxatawney, Rebecca, 
Weber's, Mary Ann, Cloanthe, Anna, Graham, 
Miner's Seedling, Canby's August, Brickie, King- 
sessing, Wright's Isabella, Ive's Seedling, Kel- 
vington and Burton's Early Harvest. 

And the following, although American Seedlings, 
are believed to be from the Vitis vinifera : — Can- 
adian Chief, Child's Superb, Jack grape, Segar 



80 NORTH- AMERICAN VARIETIES. 

box, Longworth's Ohio, Cassaday,Traminer, Amer- 
ican Red Eesling, Missouri, of Cincinnati, American 
Madiera, and American Sweet Water. 

"The Fox grape of the South" is the Vitis 
rotundifolia of Mx., and is known by the names of 
Muscadine, Scuppernong, Bullace, Bull, Bullit, 
Roanoake, Old Virginia grapes, and red, white 
and black Fox grape. 

There is another " Fox grape" in the South 
called the Vitis palmata, by Yahl, and Vitis 
Virginiana by Poiret. It is a common grape in 
Georgia, and presents many varieties. It is the 
" Old Bland's grape," and its seedlings are Bland's 
Virginia, Bland's pale red, Bland's Madeira, Red 
Scuppernong, Norton's Seedling, Powell, Elsin- 
burg, Smart's Elsinburg, Herbemont, Neal's grape, 
Warrentown, Herbemont's Madeira, Lenoir, Mis- 
souri, Thurmond, Long's grape, Devereux and 
Columbia. 

The fourth " Fox grape" is the Vitis arenosa 
found growing in Georgia and the Southwest. It 
is called in that region " Fox grape." 

The Vitis bicolor is the Summer grape of the 
North, called by Darlington uEstivalis, and by 
Muhlenberg intermedia. Some of its varieties 
are exceeding fine. I planted a vine in my 
father's yard which I found on the banks of the 
Brandywine, in Chester Co., Pa., about twenty-five 
years ago, and many persons prefer its fruit to the 
Catawba which grows in the same yard. It is also 
called fulva, sinuata, quinquilobia, heterophylla, 



NORTH- AMERICAN VARIETIES. 81 

triloba and media. Among its common names 
Raccoon, Coral, Bear, Washita, White River, 
Red River and White Summer. Several of the 
finest cultivated varieties, are, perhaps seedlings, 
or hybridized by this species, such as the Delaware, 
Graham, Heath, Emily and Clara. 

The summer grape of the South is V. sestvalis 
of Michx, and Y. labrusca of Ell. It grows 
abundantly in Georgia and South Carolina. The 
fruit is as variable in size, taste and color as 
in the bicolor. It is there generally called the 
"Little Fox grape." 

The winter grape of the North or the common 
" Chicken" grape, is the Y. vulpina of Marshall, 
Y. cordifolia of Will., in Gray's Botany of the 
Northern United States, Y. cordifolia of Pursh, 
vulpini of Muhlenberg, Y. callosa and Y. 7i?/e- 
malis of Raffinesque. This grape is known by 
the name of Chicken, Frost, Winter, Canada late, 
Creeping, Dwarf, Ground, Blood of Missouri and 
Shot grape. It is variable in size, color and flavor. 
Several varieties are esteemed for drying for 
domestic purposes, but it is generally unpalatablo 
and sour. Some varieties, however, are palatable. 

The Southern Chicken grape is the Y. bipinnata 
in Torrey and Gray, Y. arborea Will., V.pullaria 
of Le Conte, ampelopsis bipinnata Michx, cissus 
stans of Pursh, and c. bipinnata of Ell. The 
berries are small and generally similar to the 
Northern varieties of the Y. vulpina, Marsh, or 
Y. cordifolia of Darlington. 



82 NORTH- AMERICAN VARIETIES. 

The Yitis odoratissimum of Don. is the Y. 
rip aria of Michx, in Torrey and Gray. Its 
flowers emit a fragrance exactly like the mignon- 
ette which is delicious. It seldom perfects fruit. 
The berries are black, small and very sour ; but its 
blossoms fill the air of our mountain valleys with 
the most delightful perfume. 

The Yitis riparia of Michx, in the South, is 
known by the name of Pigeon grape, River grape, 
and along the Mississippi, Vigne de battures. 1 
have met with this grape in Pennsylvania, grow- 
ing in the vicinity of the Y. odoratissima, and 
frequently compared them in all stages of their 
growth, and found strong lines of distinction in 
their botanical character. The fruit is small, 
black and very acidulous. 

The Yitis tenuifolia, Will., produces a very 
small sour grape, and is found in the swamps of 
the extreme South. 

This Yitis Calif ornica of Bent, is found around 
Fort Reading in California, Sonora, Mexico, and 
at San Diego. It is now the California grape in 
cultivation, which yields the luscious and abundant 
crops about which we hear so much from that land 
of wealth and promise. Those grapes are varieties 
of the Y. vznifera, introduced into that country 
by the missionaries and traders from other coun- 
tries. The California grapes under cultivation 
are seedlings, and, perhaps, the original Madeira 
and White Muscata. 

The Vitis incisa of Nuttall is found growing 



NORTH-AMERICAN VARIETIES. 83 

wild on the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains, 
from Arkansas to Texas, and as far west as the 
head waters of Red river. The fruit is about the 
size of a small pea, of a black, shining colour. It 
fias not received much notice. 

The Vitis caribcea, Swartz, is found in California. 
The fruit is about the size of a currant, and grows 
profusely on the very long vines of that plant. 

The Vitis rupestris of Scheele, is found in Ari- 
zonia, Texas and San Diego. The fruit is said to 
be large, thin-skinned, juice saccharine, with well- 
developed vinous flavor. 

Of the sixteen species found in the United States, 
six of them produce varieties yielding fruit of supe- 
rior excellence when properly cultivated. 

The cultivation of the foreign grapes commenced 
almost with the first settlement of the country. 

In 1620, the " London Company" planted a vine- 
yard in Virginia. 

In 1632, Governor Winthrop planted a vineyard 
on Governor's Island in Boston harbor. 

In 1640, some French settlers planted vineyards 
in Delaware. 

In 1650, the Dutch planted vineyards on the 
Hudson. 

In 1660, the French planted vineyards on the 
Illinois river. 

In 1683, William Penn planted a vineyard near 
Philadelphia. 

In 1697, the Jesuit Missionaries planted the 
famous Vina Madre in California. 



84 NORTH-AMERICAN VARIETIES. 

In 1770, the Franciscan monks introduced the 
same vine into Upper California. 

In 1804, the Swiss planted vineyards at Vevay, 
Indiana. 

These foreign varieties were not adapted to the 
climate, soil and atmospherical conditions of this 
country — proved to be not remunerative, and were 
ultimately pretty nearly abandoned, except in Cali- 
fornia, where they improved in productiveness and 
character, and nothing can now exceed the Cali- 
fornia vineyards. "The ordinary calculation is, 
that an acre of land will produce a thousand gal- 
lons of wine annually. The crop is always abun- 
dant; it has never been known to fail." The 
varieties cultivated here are all foreign, and are 
called Alicante, White Muscatel and Madeira. 
The varieties cultivated in the eastern States do 
not succeed well in California and Oregon. 

The varieties obtained from our native grapes 
possess their high excellence only in limited locali- 
ties. A "very best" grape in one locality may be 
"poor" in another, as the following list will show. 

In Massachusetts, the following are esteemed 
"very best:" 

Delaware, Diana, 

Concord, Hartford Prolific. 

Kebecca, To Kalon. 

New York. 

Herbemont, Clinton, 

Canby's August, Norton's Seedling, 

Diana, Delaware. 



ADAPTATION TO SPECIAL LOCALITIES. 85 





Pennsylvania. 


Clara, 


Wright's Isabella, 


Diana, 


Catawba, 


Cassiday, 


Concord. 




Ohio. 


Catawba, 


Delaware, Concord, 


Clinton, 


Diana, Shaker. 




Virginia. 


Isabella, 


Catawba, 


Warren, 


Pauline, 


Bland's Virginia, Lenoir. 




Georgia. 


Isabella, 


Lenoir, Missouri, 


Scuppernong, 


Catawba, Warren. 




Missouri. 


Little Ozark, 


Waterloo, 


Ozark Seedling, Scuppernong, 


Missouri, 


Warren. 



Since the grape is so readily hybridized, we may 
expect the number of good varieties to be increased 
every year, and careful experiment and study alone 
can determine the merits of these varieties. We 
may also anticipate an unreasonable anxiety to 
discover " very superior kinds," and the frequent 
announcements of new varieties of " extraordinary 
superiority ;" but due allowance must be made for 
the fanciful imagination and the ambitions of 
those who labor under the influence of the vine. 
Grapes, superior to any now known, may, and 
very likely will be 'produced, and the list of first- 
rate grapes greatly extended. From twenty-one 



86 LUXEMBURG EXPERIMENTS 

species in the old world, there are at least two 
thousand three hundred varieties. At the com- 
mencement of the present century one thousand 
four hundred varieties were collected and tested in 
the Luxembourg nursery in France, to determine 
the long disputed qualities of certain varieties. 
The grape appears to be more strongly influenced 
by different exposures, climate, soil, and other 
local circumstances, than any other fruit. "As a 
striking example of these effects, we may adduce 
the slopes of the hills which grow the wines of 
Montrachet. The insulated part towards the top 
furnishes the wine called " Chevalier Montrachet" 
which is less esteemed, and sells at a much lower 
price than the delicious wine grown on the middle 
neight, called " True Montrachet." Beneath this 
district, and in the surrounding plains, the vines 
afford a far inferior article, called " Bastard Mon- 
trachet" The opposite side of the bill produces 
very different wines. Similar differences, in a 
greater or less degree, are observable relatively 
to the districts which grow the Pomard, Volnay, 
Beaune, Nuits, Yongeot, Chambertin, Eamanee, 
&c. Everywhere it is found that the reverse side 
of the hill, the summit and the plain although 
consisting of like soil, afford inferior wine to the 
middle southern slope. " Tire's Dictionary." 

The principal part of the varieties tested in 
Luxembourg nursery were from the Vitis vinifera, 
and so gradually did they pass into one another, 
that the best grape connoisseurs could not detect 



METHODS OF PROPAGATING. 87 

the true varieties, and it seems to me to be a waste 
of time to attempt the identity of varieties pro- 
duced from seeds, by the character of the fruit, for 
all our cultivated varieties being hybrids, every 
plant obtained from seed will present a different 
variety, although it may approach very nearly to 
some other variety. 

METHODS OF PROPAGATING. 

The best varieties can be propagated very 
readily by "eyes," "cuttings," and "layers." In 
February or March take the vines of last year's 
growth and cut them into shoots about two inches 
long, the bud or " eye" being in the middle. Use 
a sharp knife and cut slanting, diverging from the 
bud at both ends ; have pots or boxes prepared 
with two or three inches of charcoal, limestone, or 
small stones in the bottom. Over this, place some 
moss or hay, and then fill up with nice fine garden 
mould. Plant the " eyes" uppermost in this mould, 
but a very little below the surface ; keep the pots 
or boxes in a steady temperature of about 60° and 
the earth moist but not too wet. In about a month 
the eyes will have thrown oFrotosand commenced 
growing, and in a short time they can be removed 
to other pots. By frequent repotting, several feet 
of growth may be obtained in a single year. The 
plants thus grown are the best for planting, being 
the best rooted. It is also said they form shorter 
joints, and produce better crops of fruit. 

Cuttings. — The second plan is by " cuttings ." 
The best season to procure cuttings is in the fall 



88 PREPARATION OP SOIL — CUTTINGS. 

after the wood has fully matured, but before the 
intensity of winter sets in ; but they will often 
grow if taken off in February and March. The 
" cuttings" should be of last year's growth, of well 
ripened wood, and cut into lengths containing 
three or four buds. If a small portion of the 
preceding year's growth is obtained for the lower 
end it is better. Cut off the lower end smoothly, 
just under the bud and the upper end an inch or 
two above the bud. Cut in a slanting manner on 
the side opposite the bud to throw off the moisture. 
If cut in the fall or winter, the cuttings should be 
buried in a sheltered situation, where they will be 
protected from the severity of the frosts, and 
where they are to remain until the last of March 
or the beginning of April. 

As soon as the ground is in good working order 
after the breaking up of winter, prepare your 
ground for your cuttings. If in the situation where 
they are to remain, a deep subsoiling and thorough 
drainage must be prepared. Dig a trench two and 
a half feet deep and fill it up one-half with lime- 
stone, old crockery, bricks, cinders, old bones, 
leather and other rubbish that accumulates around 
the farm, blacksmith shop, machine shop, limekilns, 
potteries or tan yard, and then fill up the trench 
with good soil ; a sandy texture is preferable. In 
this, place your cuttings in a slanting position, the 
lower end from six to ten inches deep, and the 
upper end with the upper bud about two inches 
above the surface. The ground on the surface 



CUTTINGS — LAYERING. 89 

should be pressed closely around the cutting, and 
covered with leaves, litter or stones to prevent the 
surface from becoming hard and compact. Care 
must be taken to keep the ground moist by water- 
ing at least once a week. During the very warm 
weather, the cuttings should be partly sheltered 
from the severity of the sun's rays, and from the 
drying winds. If the cuttings are raised for 
transplanting, pretty much the same rules must be 
observed as given. When they are to remain per- 
manently, they must in all cases be kept perfectly 
clean of weeds and grass, and the soil must be 
kept moist and free from baking. 

The third mode of propagation is by " layers" 
a very expeditious mode of growing vines although 
it is not regarded as the best. One plan of 
obtaining vines by this method is in March or 
April to run the vine through the bottom of a box 
or pot and let two or three buds come above the 
top. Put in the bottom of the pot or box, some 
leaves, and then fill it with rich garden mould, and 
water every day. The success of this method de- 
pends on keeping the mould in the pots moist. 
The plant should be separated from the vine in 
September, and planted where it is to remain. 
Another mode by layers is to bend the vine down 
and fasten it there with a peg. Make a cut half 
way through the under side of the shoot below 
some of the buds, then cover the vines with fine 
mould to the depth of three or four inches, and 
8* 



90 GRAFTING AND PRUNING. 

cover the surface with leaves, straw or some mulch 
to keep the ground moist. This operation may be 
performed at any time up to the middle of July, 
and is usually attended with success. The vines 
should be separated in the following spring. 

The grape is also propagated by grafting. Eoot 
grafting is usually performed in very early spring, 
before the sap moves. The other modes of grafting 
are usually performed after the vine is in leaf. 
I will not enter into a scientific disquisition on 
grafting, but merely state that almost every mode 
of grafting is successfully practised on the grape 
vine, though more care is requisite than is usually 
practiced on the pear or apple, owing to the 
liability of the grape vine to " bleed. 1 ' The best 
time to perform the operation is when the sap is 
not in active motion. By these means, the best 
varieties of grapes may soon be increased to a 
great extent, and there is no apology for encum- 
bering the ground with poor and insipid varieties. 
Every dwelling should posses a grape vine of the 
best variety. 

The modes of culture, pruning and manage- 
ment, are subjects of as much discussion as the 
recognition of the varieties. Theory being often 
founded on false deductions, fails in practice. 
Science, not theory, and practical experiments 
must be brought together, and men of science 
should work more and theorize less, and not dig- 
nify mere theories with the name of horticultural 
science. Vegetable physiology is but little under- 



FRENCH AND ITALIAN VINEYARDS. 91 

stood, and writers attempt an exposition of many 
of the intricacies of phytology without even com- 
prehending the simplest laws of vegetable life. 
Many species of the grape vine differ materially 
in their native growth, soil and climate. Some 
are mere shrubs, whilst others clamber to the top 
of the highest trees and cover an immense area. 
Some delight in limestone soils whilst others grow 
in the almost, barren sands of the sea coast, and 
others again flourish and perfect their fruit at the 
foot of the glaciers, or along the shores of our 
northern lakes, whilst still others delight in the 
sultry miasmas of the swamps of Georgia and 
Florida. 

The vineyards of France are not objects of 
much beauty. " Before the foliage of the plants 
has made its appearance, nothing but a field of 
stakes about four feet high is visible." " It looks 
like currant bushes, or any low and leafless 
shrubs," whilst in Italy the same varieties of vines 
are trained to elms, poplars and maples and are 
permitted to clamber to their tops and spread 
from tree to tree crossing in all directions, and the 
fruit too hangs in beautiful clusters and festoons, 
and give to the Italian vineyards all the beauty 
and taste described by travellers as they 

''Scent the new fragrance of the hreathing rose 
And quaff the pendant yintage as it grows." 

Many of our American vines are great ramblers. 
I have seen varieties of the Fox grape on the north 



92 VIGOR OF NATIVE GRAPES. 

branch of the Susquehanna, between Northumber- 
land and Wilkesbarre, which covered the largest 
trees, and the fruit yielded by them was large and 
finer flavored than when raised in the same district 
on vtnes from the cuttings under high cultivation 
and close pruning. The Horticulturist describes a 
grape vine at Burlington, N. J., which at three 
feet from the ground measured six feet in circum- 
ference. In the rich valleys of the Ohio, the Fox 
grape vine is often found from eight inches to a 
foot in diameter, with vines one hundred and thirty 
feet long, The Scuppernong grape, which was 
once considered a foreigner, is said to grow most 
luxuriantly on the Koanoake. A single vine is 
said to have covered, the area of an acre. Mr. 
Sawyer says : " The Scuppernong grape finds its 
most genial soil in the sands of the north and south 
banks of Currituck County and the Island of 
Koanoake. Every man's dwelling is ornamented 
with wide-spread vines, reaching in many cases 
over an area of a quarter of an acre, these vines 
have grown to over twelve inches in diameter, and 
they have been standing for over a century. The 
largest vines produce from fifty to one hundred 
bushels of fruit annually. They grow in clusters 
of six or eight, about the size of common marbles, 
of a pale yellow color when ripe, and the most 
juicy and luscious of all grapes." 

The vines of France came from Persia through 
Egypt, Greece, Italy and Spain. They were in- 
troduced into France about two centuries after 



EFFECTS OF OVER PRUNING. 93 

the Christian era. The vines never succeeded so 
well in France as in Italy, and the high cultivation, 
forcing, pruning and propagation by cuttings and 
layers, have dwarfed it to a low bush, attaining 
only a few feet in height. 

But our American vines are generally stronger 
in their growth, with larger and more entire 
foliage than even the vines of Egypt or Italy. 
Their organisms are adapted to the physicial con- 
ditions in which they are placed. The leaves are 
their lungs, and their trunks are furnished with 
peculiar tissues to convey the descending and 
secreted fluids to their proper place, and the 
whole and perfect plant is prepared to perform all 
its functions. A part may be diverted from one 
source and conveyed to another without sensibly 
deranging the whole ; but this can only be ac- 
complished to a certain extent ; beyond this, 
destruction ensues. The grape vine in its native 
soil and climate will not endure the changes that 
have been accomplished in the foreign varieties, 
through thousands of years of time, and the 
gradual migration through different countries, 
climate and soil. Our vines will only endure a 
moderate amount of pruning ; the too free use of 
the knife on them produces disease, and invariably 
shortens their life. We have seen fine native vines 
hopelessly ruined by theoretic pruning. It is neces- 
sary to keep out the dead wood and diseased 
branches, and their form and growth may be con- 
trolled to a certain extent by attention, when they 



94 PRUNING AND TRAINING. 

are growing, by pinching off the buds, and pro- 
tecting or removing the feeble shoots. Start the 
branches near the ground, and train them over 
trellises, but to attempt to confine their growth to 
mere stakes will prove a failure on all our Ameri- 
can species. During the first and second year, 
early in the fall, the knife may be used pretty 
freely. Some think it is best to cut the vines back 
pretty closely, and not draw too severely on the 
roots for sustenance for the wood ; but even at this 
period, circumstances should control the judg- 
ment, and a knowledge of the laws of vegetable 
economy alone, can dictate the proper amount of 
pruning necessary. In ridding our fence-rows and 
hedges of briars and grape vines, we cut them 
down, not to make them grow, but to destroy 
them, and this operation oft repeated, seldom fails 
to accomplish its object. 

The wood of the grape vine is composed of 
Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen. Nothing- 
enters a plant by its roots but fluids, The gases 
are destructive to vegetable life if absorbed by the 
roots ; but in solution they are food. Roots do 
not evolve oxygen nor nitrogen, these are derived 
from the atmosphere alone ; and the carbon that 
enters the plant by the root is not decomposed until 
it reaches the leaves. Hydrogen is not inhaled by 
plants, but results from the decomposition of water 
in the plants, therefore, it is necessary with the 
grape vine, as with all other plants, to furnish to 
the plant the most available means for carrying on 



PROPER FERTILIZERS. 95 

its great work of absorption, inhalation and elabo- 
ration. The earth must be placed in a condition 
to allow the gases to escape, and the spongiolse to 
absorb the fluids necessary for the food of the 
plant. In addition to the above ingredients, the 
grape vine contains a small portion of alkaline or 
earthy salts, and these are absolutely necessary to 
its health and growth. These are derived from 
the soil, and taken up in a state of artificial solution. 
Hence, manuring consists in supplying the soil 
with any deficiencies that may exist, and in fur- 
nishing the solvent powers of acids and alkalies to 
act on the soil, and also to supply the soil with the 
ingredients to take up and hold large quantities of 
water. Phosphoric acid, potash, ammonia, sulphur, 
chlorine, lime and silex, are the principal ingredi- 
ents requisite for these purposes for the grape 
vine. But the grape vine is a greedy feeder, and 
a superabundance of any of these may result in 
harm. A thorough drainage or a loose subsoil is 
absolutely necessary for the grape vine, but too 
high manuring, whilst it may improve the quantity 
and appearance of the fruit, will often impair its 
flavor and produce disease, not only in the fruit 
but in the vine. The grape vine delights in a loose, 
sandy soil, and a warm exposure ; the roots are 
found near the surface, and delight to run along 
the margin of a bank exposed to the sun, and but 
slightly covered and protected from the frosts. 
The causes of the rot appear to result from the 
root being too deeply buried, too severe pruning, 



96 CONCLUSION. 

and a humid soil. Guano is an excellent manure for 
the grape vine, and next to this is the manure from 
the hog-pen and chicken-house. To promote the 
growth of the vine, keep the ground well mulched ; 
but to ripen the fruit, the gases should be allowed 
to escape freely and the surface exposed to the 
sun. The ground should not be dug up so as to 
injure the roots that are found near the surface 
If the ground is continually disturbed to the depth 
of the spade, so as to damage the roots, and in ad- 
dition, is kept wet and covered, the fruit will very 
likely rot. 

It is impossible in an article of the limit pre- 
scribed, to enter into all the whys and wherefores 
of the grape culture, for it is involved in almost 
every question of Life with its Conditions, and em- 
braces many of the intricacies of vegetable physi- 
ology and agricultural chemistry. I have, therefore 
been compelled to closely prune my position, and 
perhaps, in some instances, to leave my subject in 
the dark, but, if I have advanced anything that will 
contribute to the propagation of this most excellent 
fruit, I have accomplished ray object. I confi- 
dently anticipate the complete success of the 
American grape, both as a table fruit and for 
wine, and I think nothing now remains but to clear 
away the rubbish, and adopt the best varieties; 
reject the inferior ones, and give the best at- 
tention and care that the grape of the old world 
has received since the primitive days of our 
venerable ancestors. 









mmmm^mwM 



^v'V 






V* 






'VPv 



mxmmmm 






l\W"V 



roiTOw*w&OT 



v-^vy y 'vv.^ 



AiJdiUkkii^ijyy 



